Practical research

• Research Design

  The complete sequential steps the researcher undertakes in order to achieve the goal or objectives of the study
• Research Method

  The overall plan for collecting data in order to answer the research questions
• Quantitative Research Designs

  • Survey
  • Correlation
  • Causal Comparative
  • Evaluation Research
  • Experimental
• Survey


  • Collection of data on phenomenon that cannot be directly observed
  • Describe the characteristics of the population
  • Data are usually collected through a questionnaire or a checklist
• Correlation


  • Investigates the possibility of relationships between two variables without the manipulation of variables
  • Identifying the relationships among variables
  • Data of the two or more variables are paired and correlated, the resulting coefficients indicate the degree of relationship
• Causal Comparative

  • Investigates the cause or the consequence of the differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals
  • To describe the reason for or the results of already existing differences between two groups
  • Selecting two or more groups that differ on a particular variables of interest and comparing them on another variable without manipulating the variables involved
• Evaluation Research


  • Putting judgment and value to the measurement obtained
  • Determine the efficiency and effectiveness of certain practices, policies and programs using key indicators or standards
• Experimental


  • Describes the cause and effect relationship by manipulating the independent variables
  • Establish the cause and the effect relationships among variables
  • Two randomly assigned groups are observed the treated with intervention and observed thereafter
• Qualitative Research Designs


  • Case Study
  • Ethnography
  • Grounded Theory
  • Phenomenology
  • Historical Research
• Case Study


  • Empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context
  • Brings everyone to an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research
  • Emphasized detailed analysis of a limited number of events or condition and their relationships
• Ethnography


  • A long term investigation of a group (culture) that is based on immersion and optimally participation in that group
  • Provides detailed exploration of group activity and may include literature about/and/or groups
  • Explains the web of interdependence of group behavior and interactions
  • Employs multiple methodologies to arrive at a theoretically comprehensive understanding of a group or culture
• Grounded Theory


  • Development of theories that emerge from observing a group
  • Theories are grounded in the groups observable experiences but researchers add their own insights into why those experiences exist
  • Attempts to reach a theory or conceptual understanding through stepwise inductive process
• Phenomenology


  • Seeks to explain the structure and essence of the lived experiences of a group of people
  • Concerned with understanding certain group behavior from that group's point of view
  • Requires researchers to go through series of steps in which they try to eliminate their own assumptions and biases
• Historical Research


  • Systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain and thereby understand actions or events that occurred sometimes in the past
  • Learn from past experiences and successes and predict future course of actions
  • Defining problems, locating relevant sources, summarizing and evaluating information, interpreting evidences and drawing conclusions
• Sampling Techniques


  • Random Sampling
  • Systematic Sampling
  • Stratified Proportional Sampling
  • Multiple Sampling
  • Non-Random Sampling
  • Purposive Sampling
  • Convenience Sampling
  • Quota Sampling
  • Accidental Sampling
  • Snowball Sampling
• Random Sampling


  • Selecting sample units from the population by giving equal chances to each population unit to be included in the sample
• Simple Random Sampling


  • It gives each unit equal chances to be chosen as a sample. In this design, the samples are selected using lottery (fishbowl technique) or table of random numbers
• Systematic Sampling


  • Uses a sampling frame where the sample units are taken using an nth interval
• Stratified Proportional Sampling


  • A strategy for selection of samples in such a way that the specific sub-groups (strata) will have a sufficient number of representatives within the sample to provide sample numbers for sub analysis of the members of the sub-groups
• Multiple Sampling


  • This type of sampling is usually used when the population is very large. The selection of the sample units is done using several stages
• Non-Random Sampling


  • Selecting sample units from the population by not giving equal chances to each population unit to be included in the sample
• Purposive Sampling


  • The sample units are chosen based on certain criteria or qualifications. e.g. Outstanding Principals, Teenage Mothers, smokers
• Convenience Sampling


  • The sample units are selected from the population at the convenience of the researcher
• Quota Sampling


  • This is based on the predetermined number or target
• Accidental Sampling


  • The sample units are chosen by chance
• Snowball Sampling


  • The sample units are taken from population using several sample points recruiting more sample points and more sample points thereafter
• Data-gathering Instrument


  Tool used by the researcher to gather or collect data. These include questionnaire, checklist, tests, interview guide, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) guide, Participant Observation (PO) guide
• Validity


  The robustness of the instrument to measure what it intends to measure
• Face Validity


  • Validity at face value. The qualitative measure to test validity and usually done by experts on research instrumentation
• Content Validity


  • The validity of the test where it contains items converting all domains to be tested. It is usually done by content experts
• Reliability


  The consistency of the test. The quantitative measure of test validity and measured when the test results do not vary significantly from time to time
• Inter-Rater Reliability


  • Used to assess the consistency of the decisions of the different raters
• Test-retest Reliability


  • Used to assess the consistency of the test from one time to another
• Parallel Form Reliability

  • Used to assess the consistency of two similarly constructed tests
• Internal Consistency Reliability


  • Used to assess the consistency of the test across its items. To determine this, the researcher has to determine the Cronbach's Alpha level
• Data-gathering Procedure


  The steps the researcher undertakes in conducting the study, from asking permission, to the administration of the instruments, retrieval, coding, encoding of data, analysis, and interpretation
• Data Analysis Procedure


  The application of the appropriate statistical tool for the given data based on the research problem and variables used in the study
• Kinds of Data

  • Nominal
  • Ordinal
  • Interval
  • Ratio
• Nominal Data


  Categorical, non-rankable and mutually exclusive. Examples: sex (male/female), positive or negative, yes or no
• Ordinal Data


  Categorical and rankable data. Examples: educational attainment, socio-economic status, softest/hardest