Chem Y10 U2 - how do we use matter

• In amorphous solids, particles lack a long-range order and are arranged randomly. They have no specific shape or structure, and their properties are often isotropic (the same in all directions). Examples of amorphous solids include glass, rubber, and plastic.
• In crystalline solids, particles are arranged in a repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice. This ordered structure gives crystals their characteristic shapes, such as cubes, pyramids, or prisms. Examples of crystalline solids include salt, diamond, and quartz.
• Polycrystalline solids are composed of many small crystals called grains or crystallites. These grains are randomly oriented, resulting in a material that is neither completely amorphous nor completely crystalline. Examples of polycrystalline solids include metals, ceramics, and rocks.
• The components are evenly distributed throughout a homogeneous mixture, resulting in a uniform appearance and composition. Examples include salt water, air, and sugar dissolved in water.
• In a heterogeneous mixture, the components are not evenly distributed, leading to a non-uniform appearance and composition. Examples include sand and water, oil and water, and pizza with various toppings.
• Pure substances exhibit sharp, distinct melting and boiling points.
• Impure substances have broader melting and boiling point ranges compared to pure substances.
• A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution. It can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
• A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute to form a solution. It is typically a liquid but can also be a gas or a solid.
• A phase is a region of matter that is uniform in its physical state and chemical composition. For example, water can exist in three phases: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam).
• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles are dispersed throughout a solvent-like phase. The particles are large enough to settle out of the mixture over time. Examples of suspensions include muddy water and paint.
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which solute-like particles are dispersed throughout a solvent-like phase. The particles are smaller than those in a suspension, but large enough to scatter light. Examples of colloids include milk, fog, and mayonnaise.
• A gel is a colloid in which the dispersed phase has formed a three-dimensional network that traps the solvent. Gels are typically soft and elastic. Examples of gels include gelatin, hair gel, and jelly.
• An emulsion is a colloid in which two immiscible liquids are dispersed throughout each other. An emulsifying agent typically stabilizes the dispersed phase. Examples of emulsions include milk, mayonnaise, and ice cream.
• A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature. If more solute is added, it will not dissolve and will precipitate out of the solution.
• An unsaturated solution is a solution that contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature. More solute can be dissolved in the solution without it precipitating out.
• miscible: substances that mix completely and form a homogeneous solution. For example, water and ethanol are miscible because they have similar polarities. 
• immiscible: substances that do not mix well and form separate layers. For example, oil and water are immiscible because they have different polarities.
• Emulsifiers act as bridges between oil and water, preventing them from separating. They have a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (oil-loving) tail, allowing them to interact with both substances. By surrounding oil droplets with their hydrophilic heads, they prevent them from clumping together and forming a separate layer.
• Filtrate: The liquid passes through a filter during filtration, leaving behind the solid residue.
• Residue: The solid material that remains on the filter paper after filtration.
• Distillate: The condensed vapor collected during distillation, which is typically a purified form of the original liquid.
• Volatile: A substance that readily vaporizes at a relatively low temperature.
• Decantation: This method separates immiscible liquids or a liquid and a solid based on their density differences. The denser component settles at the bottom, allowing the less dense component to be poured off.
• Evaporation: This method separates a soluble solid from a liquid by heating the solution. The liquid evaporates, leaving behind the solid residue.
• Vaporization: This method separates a volatile liquid from a non-volatile liquid or solid by heating the mixture. The volatile component vaporizes and can be collected separately.
• Filtration: This method separates a solid from a liquid by passing the mixture through a filter. The solid particles are trapped by the filter, while the liquid passes through.
• Separatory funnel: This method separates two immiscible liquids based on their density differences. The liquids are placed in a separatory funnel, and the denser liquid settles at the bottom. The less dense liquid can then be drained off.
• Distillation: This method separates liquids with different boiling points by heating the mixture. The liquid with the lower boiling point vaporizes first and can be collected separately.
• Chromatography: A technique used to separate mixtures of substances based on their solubility.
• Recrystallization: This technique relies on the different solubilities of substances in different solvents. By dissolving a mixture in a hot solvent, the desired substance will crystallize as the solution cools. The crystals can then be separated from the remaining liquid by filtration.
• The retardation factor (Rf) is a measure of how far a substance travels in a chromatographic separation compared to the solvent front. Rf=Distance traveled by substance / Distance traveled by solvent.
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This movement occurs due to the random thermal motion of the molecules.
• Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion that involves the movement of water molecules across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration. This movement occurs because water molecules are attracted to the higher concentration of solutes in the other region.
• A semi-permeable membrane is a type of membrane that allows only certain small molecules to pass through. This type of membrane is used in many biological processes, such as osmosis and dialysis.
• Dialysate is a solution that is used in dialysis to remove waste products from the blood. The dialysate is separated from the blood by a semipermeable membrane, which allows small molecules like waste products to pass through but prevents large molecules like blood cells from passing through.
• Factors that affect the movement of particles


  Higher temperatures increase the kinetic energy of particles, causing them to move faster and collide more frequently. This leads to increased diffusion and reaction rates.
• Factors that affect the movement of particles


  Higher pressure leads to more frequent collisions and faster movement of particles.
• Factors that affect the movement of particles


  The state of matter itself dictates the typical movement of particles. In solids, particles are tightly packed and vibrate in fixed positions. In liquids, particles are closer but can move and slide past each other. In gases, particles are far apart and move freely and independently.
• Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse more slowly.