Znobapharma

• Blood pressure (BP)


  A measure of the force being exerted on the walls of arteries as blood is pumped out of the heart
• Systolic pressure


  The first sound heard as the artery opens enough for the first pumps of blood to come through
• Diastolic pressure


  The last sound recorded at the point where the measurer stops hearing the 'pump'; it measures the pressure in the arteries as the heart relaxes
• Blood pressure classification


  • Normal: BP <120/80 mmHg (systolic/diastolic)
  • Hypertension (stage II): systolic ≥140 mmHg or diastolic ≥90 mmHg
• Mechanisms for controlling blood pressure

  • Baroreceptors and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
  • Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system
• Beta blockers (BBs)


  Beta-adrenergic receptor blockers used primarily to treat heart disease and related conditions
• How beta blockers reduce BP


  • Binding to beta-adrenoceptors on cells and blocking the binding of norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (EP)
  • Blocking these neurotransmitters can effectively reduce the BP and treat hypertension
• Beta blockers


  • Propranolol (PL)
  • Metoprolol
  • Atenolol
• Propranolol (PL)


  • Non-selective, lipid soluble beta blocker used to lower blood pressure and the effect of exercise on heart rate and cardiac output
  • Should be avoided if patient had allergic reaction, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, heart failure, severe blood circulation problems, lung disease or asthma
• Experimental method


  1. Record PR and BP at rest (1st reading)

  2. Record PR and BP after 5 minutes of exercise (2nd reading)

  3. One volunteer takes 40 mg propranolol, other takes placebo

  4. After 30-45 minutes, record PR and BP at rest and after exercise (3rd and 4th readings)
• Table 1: Blood pressure and pulse rate before and after propranolol treatment
• Cholinergic receptors


  Receptors that are activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
• Adrenergic receptors


  Receptors that are activated by the neurotransmitters adrenaline and noradrenaline
• Agonist


  A drug that binds to a receptor and activates it
• Antagonist


  A drug that binds to a receptor and prevents it from activating or inhibiting it
• Eyes

  • Have multiple autonomic functions controlled by several autonomic receptors
  • Have intrinsic muscles (controlling pupil size and lens shape)
  • Have secretory epithelium (produces aqueous humor) of the ciliary body

  
• Light reflex


  1. Radial muscles express α1 receptors, cause mydriasis when they contract, and are controlled by sympathetic fibers

  2. Circular muscles are innervated by the parasympathetic division, express M3 receptors, and cause miosis when they contract

  
• Mydriasis


  Dilation of the pupil
• Miosis


  Constriction of the pupil
• Accommodation


  1. Lens changes shape to allow for clear focus on near or far objects

  2. Mediated by relaxation and contraction of ciliary muscles, innervated by parasympathetic fibers
• Parasympathomimetic drugs

  Induce accommodation
• Parasympatholytic medications

  Block accommodation
• Cycloplegia


  Impairment of the lens' ability to accommodate near vision
• Procedure for light effect on pupil size of human eyes


  Select 5-6 healthy volunteers

  2. Measure pupil size of left eye in lab light

  3. Measure pupil size in dim room

  4. Measure pupil size with penlight in dim room

  5. Record changes in Table 1
• Procedure for pupil size in treated rabbit eyes

  Place drops of atropine, phenylephrine and pilocarpine in right eyes of rabbits

  Record changes in parameters mentioned in table
• Anesthesia


  Loss of sensation
• Anesthetics

  Medications that cause anesthesia
• Anesthetics

  • Used during tests and surgical operations to numb sensation in certain areas of the body or induce sleep
  • Prevents pain and discomfort and enables a wide range of medical procedures to be carried out
• Local anesthesia


  A small area of the body is anesthetized by blocking the transmission of nerve impulses from a specific part of the body
• General anesthesia

  Induces generalized unconsciousness and unawareness of the procedure by suppressing central nervous system activity, resulting in a total lack of sensation
• Stages of general anesthesia


  1. Induction

  2. Maintenance

  3. Recovery
• Induction


  Time from administration of a potent anesthetic to development of effective anesthesia
• Maintenance


  Provides sustained anesthesia
• Recovery


  Time from discontinuation of anesthetic until consciousness and protective reflexes return
• Depth of anesthesia

  Degree to which the central nervous system is depressed
• Stages of depth of anesthesia


  • Stage I - Analgesia
  • Stage II - Excitement
  • Stage III - Surgical anesthesia
  • Stage IV - Medullary paralysis
• Stage I - Analgesia


  Loss of pain sensation, patient progresses from conscious and conversational to drowsy, amnesia and reduced awareness of pain occur
• Stage II - Excitement


  Patient displays delirium and possibly combative behavior, rise and irregularity in blood pressure and respiration, risk of laryngospasm
• Stage III - Surgical anesthesia

  Gradual loss of muscle tone and reflexes as the central nervous system is further depressed, regular respiration and relaxation of skeletal muscles with eventual loss of spontaneous movement, ideal stage for surgery
• Stage IV - Medullary paralysis


  Severe depression of the respiratory and vasomotor centers, ventilation and/or circulation must be supported to prevent death