Research Methods

• Positivists


  Prefer scientific, quantifiable data that is quick and easy to obtain, and is rich in reliability and validity
• Interpretivists


  Value qualitative data that provides in-depth meaning of a small-scale research group, and is therefore rich in validity
• The choice of research method is also determined by the practical, ethical and theoretical issues associated with it
• Practical issues

  • TIME
  • MONEY
  • ACCESS
• Time


  Some methods take more time than others because of, for example, more detailed data being recorded. Research methods that take more time may lead to a smaller research sample size
• Money


  The money available to conduct the research affects the number of researchers, respondents and amount of research time. Equipment, travel and people's time are often not cheap
• Access


  Some groups of respondents and location are easier to access than others. For example, to enter a school to do research, permission is required
• Ethical issues


  • INFORMED CONSENT
  • CONFIDENTIALITY
  • PSYCHOLOGICAL HARM
• Informed consent


  Researchers should have the informed consent of their research subjects, because of the effects that the research may have on them
• Confidentiality

  Research subjects have a right to anonymity, so they should not be identifiable when the research is published
• Psychological harm

  Some research groups are more vulnerable to psychological harm than others (eg. children)
• Theoretical issues


  • RELIABILITY
  • REPRESENTATIVENESS
  • VALIDITY
• Reliability


  For a research method to be reliable, it must be able to be repeated and obtain similar results. Positivists favour reliable research and therefore use methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews, that can be repeated by any researcher due to the structured conditions
• Representativeness


  For a research method to be representative, the sample group must have similar characteristics to those of the wider population. Positivists value representativeness because they wish to discover general patterns and make cause and effect statements about social behaviour
• Validity


  Validity refers to how true the data is. Interpretivists emphasise the need to use research methods rich in validity, such as unstructured interviews and participant observations because they reveal the real meanings in which people hold
• Laboratory experiments


  Test hypotheses in a controlled environment where the researcher changes the independent variable and measures the effect on the dependent variable
• Laboratory experiments


  • Highly reliable - the original experiment can specify precisely what steps were followed
  • Can easily identify cause and effect relationships
• Disadvantages of laboratory experiments


  • Artificiality - lab experiments are carried out in a highly artificial environment and may not reveal how people act in the real world
  • Hawthorne effect - a lab is not a formal or natural environment, people may act differently if they know they are being studied
  • Ethical issues - the researcher needs informed consent of the participants
  • Unrepresentative: the small-scale nature of lab experiments reduces their representativeness
  • Impossible to identify and/or control all the variables that might exert an influence on certain social issues
• Field experiments


  Take place in the real social world, whereby the sociologist either creates a situation or adapts a real-life situation to their research purpose. Those involved are usually unaware of the research taking place.
• Advantages of field experiments


  • Less artificiality - field experiments are set in real-world situations
  • Validity - people are unaware of the experimental situation (no Hawthorne effect) and are in their usual social environment, they will act normally
• Disadvantages of field experiments


  • Ethical issues - involves carrying out an experiment on people without their informed consent
  • Less control over variables
  • Limited application - field experiments can only be applied to a limited number of social situations
• Questionnaires


  A form of social survey, typically a list of pre-set questions that are closed-end questions with pre-coded answers
• Advantages of questionnaires


  • Practical - questionnaires are cheap and quick
  • Quantifiable data
  • Representative - reach a geographically widespread research sample
  • Reliable - the questionnaire can be easily repeated due to how the questions are pre-set
  • Limited ethical issues - the respondent is under no obligation to answer the question
• Disadvantages of questionnaires


  • Response rate - postal questionnaires, in particular, obtain a very low response rate, which may hinder the representativity
  • Low validity - People may be more willing to lie
  • Unrepresentative - You are likely to get a certain group of people, for example, the unemployed or elderly that answer the questionnaire
  • The interviewer isn't there to ask follow-up questions and explain questions the participants if they don't understand
• Structured interviews


  Involve face-to-face or over-the-phone delivery of a questionnaire, using a list of pre-set questions designed by the researcher and asked of all interviewees in the same way
• Advantages of structured interviews


  • Practical - training interviewers is easy and cheap
  • Practical - Cheap and easy to administer
  • Representative - can reach a geographically wide research sample
  • Results are easily quantifiable because they use closed-ended questions with coded answers
  • Reliable - the structured process provides a 'recipe' for reproducibility
• Disadvantages of structured interviews


  • Lack of validity: the use of closed-ended and pre-coded answers may not fit what the interviewee wishes to say
  • Lack of validity: People may lie or exaggerate
• Unstructured interviews


  The interpretivist favoured method, mainly ask open-ended questions that produce qualitative data rich in meaning. There is a strong relationship built between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• Advantages of unstructured interviews


  • Rapport - the informality allows the interviewer to develop a relationship with the interviewee
  • Flexibility - the interviewer is not restricted to a fixed set of questions
  • Valid - they are flexible, due to how the conversation is not constrained by fixed questions - people can be more truthful
• Disadvantages of unstructured interviews


  • Practical - time consuming, due to how unstructured interviews are typically longer, and expensive due to training interviewers in sensitivity
  • Unrepresentative - due to small research samples, data obtained is not representative of the wider population
  • Not reliable - due to how the questions are open, they cannot be easily repeated by another researcher. Additionally, the respondent's ability to respond in the way they wish makes it impossible to clarify their responses.
• Participant observation


  The researcher joins in the activities of the group they are researching
• Participant observations


  • Valid - groups are observed in a natural and authentic setting, therefore the data is more likely to be a true account of the group's behaviour
  • Valid - data generate is richly detailed and offers insight into social behaviour
• Participant observations


  • Unreliable - being open-ended and subjective research, there is no fixed procedure or standardised system of measurement and cannot be replicated
  • Unrepresentative - most participant observations investigate small-scale groups that are not representative of the wider population
  • Not valid - the Hawthorne effect, due to how the observer is likely to affect the group's behaviour, and the researcher is at risk of 'going native', meaning the researcher over-identifies with the group
  • Ethical issues - it is difficult to ensure anonymity of participants
  • Practical issues - there are issues with getting into the group, staying in the group and/or leaving the group
• Non-participant observation


  The observer avoids any direct involvement with the research group
• Non-participant observations


  • Valid - limited risk of the researcher 'going native'
• Non-participant observations


  • Not reliable - each observation will be subjective, and therefore cannot be repeated
  • Not representative - involves a small-scale research sample
• Overt observation


  The researcher explains their research intention to the group, so the research subjects are aware they are being observed
• Overt observations


  • Less ethical issues than covert because the participants know they're being researched
  • Higher level of reliability than covert
  • The observer can openly take notes
  • Allows researcher to use interview methods too
• Overt observations


  • Practical - Time consuming
  • Lacks validity - Hawthorne effect
  • Less reliable - Difficult to repeat
  • Not always representative
• Covert observation


  The researcher keeps their real identity and purpose secret from research subjects