beliefs in society

• Functionalist view of religion- Durkheim sacred and profane


  Religion carries out a positive function for some individuals and wider society. Functionalists focus on the social functions that religion performs and it acts as a form of social question that helps to maintain value consensus. Durkheim argues all societies make the distinction between the sacred and the profane. The sacred have strong emotions of respect. Sacred objects often involve taboos e.g. crucifix, Star of David. The profane is the ordinary and everyday.
• The collective conscious


  Sacred symbols represent societies collective conscious. Regular shared religious rituals reinforce collective conscience and maintains and social integrates (shared moral codes). Participating in shared rituals binds individuals together reminding them that they are part of single community. Important function of individual by making us feel greater than answers.
• Cognitive functions - parsons and Durkheim


  Both Durkheim and parsons argue that religion has cognitive functions - acts as a primary source of meaning. Offers answers to 'ultimate questions' - like do good recycle suffer. Religion provides answers and prevents society's values being undermined.
• Marx view of religion


  Understood society as movie in a linear, evolutionary direction, nut for that Marx the end-point at which society would stop evolving was not positivism but communism, where the need for religion would be dependance and prevented humans from realising their own potential. Marx argued religion gave the poor a sense of not only false hope but 'false consciousness'. He sees religion as an ideological weaponised by the ruling class to legitimise the suffering of the poor. Religion misleads the suffering of the poor in to thinking they will be rewarded in the afterlife.
• Durkheim view on religion - positive role for society


  Envisioned a much more positive role for religion in society: as a force for social integration that provided a kind of 'social glue' for holding society together. In Durkheim's view, a source of cohesion and religion provided individuals with a collective identity and shared set of values and beliefs. Critics, have suggested that Durkheim over emphasised the degree of harmony produced by religion.
• Webers view of religion - vehicle for social change


  Argues that religion could also be a vehicle for social change. Weber identified an intimate link or 'elective affinity' between religion and the transition from feudalism to capitalism.
• Malinowski


  Religion promotes solidarity. Focuses more on the psychological functions of religion and how it helps people deal with emotional stress. The outcome is important but can't be controlled and thus uncertain -the lagoon fishing is safer than ocean fishing. At times of crisis - events such as birth, puberty, marriage and especially death mark a major and disruptive change in social groups - religion helps to minimise the disruption. Religion performs this function when the outcome of a situation is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain. Malinowski ignores dysfunctional aspects of religion and religion may be seen as less relevant today as we live in a more secular society.
• Bellah - neo-functionalist - civil religion


  In modern, multi-faith societies, the bonding is through civil religion. Civil religion is a belief system which attaches sacred qualities to society itself. He argues we now have civil religion that has sacred qualities are attached to society itself.
• Beckford - civil religion


  Occasions when the UK is drawn together by rituals and events e.g. remembrance day.
• Marxism- religion in a capitalist society


  Religion is an ideological institution i.e. it is part of the capitalist superstructure. Marx sees religion as a 'series of myths' that seeks to justify ruling class power and the exploitation of the working class. Religion is seen as a conservative force.
• Gramsci - cultural hegemony


  Religion could sometimes be a focus for a counter-hegemony - a set of ideas used as a basis for challenging power of the ruling class. Religious leaders lower down the hierarchy can act as organic intellectuals who speak for the working Vlad and promote resistance to the ruling class. Religion therefore can have a relative autonomy, or some independence, from ruling class control.
• Bloch - the dual character of religion


  Bloch argues that religion can be both a conservative force and a force for change i.e. it has a dual character. It can be used as a tool of oppression and social control but it can also be used as a 'principle of hope'. In certain circumstances, religion can be used to inspire the working class to recruit and challenge the ruling class. Therefore, religion can be a form of social protest.
• Maduro - liberation theology


  Liberation theology was a radical movement that emerged within the Catholic Church of Latin America at the end of the 1960s. It was fuelled by widespread poverty and human rights abusers of the state. Radical priests challenged both the state and the established church and helped to mobilise the poor. It was squashed in the 1980 by Pope John Paul II for its similarities to marxism. Religion isn't always a conservative force.
• Pentecostalism


  Pentecostalism has become the dominant religion force in Latin America. Pentecostalism is protestant christian movement that emphasises direct personal experience of god through baptism with the Holy Spirit. It offers and 'option for the poor' to pull themselves out of poverty through their own efforts. It is therefore less radical than liberation theology which focused on collective action.
• Radical feminists - view of religion


  Religion is patriarchal and it is a conservative force.
• Liberal feminists - view of religion


  It is not necessarily religion that is patriarchal but culture therefore religion can change and can be a force for change.
• De Boauvior - the second sex


  Argues that men have generally exercised control over religious beliefs. Religion makes it appear that God supports the writings and ideas that God supports the writings and ideas of men. Religion is therefore overtly patriarchal. Religion creates a 'false consciousness' for women.
• De Beauvoir - radical feminists


  Gender rather than someone's economic situation determines position in society. True functions of religion is to perpetuate male dominance of society through the promotion of patriarchal values.
• Stone - radical feminists


  Looked at Orthodox Judaism. Men have seized control of various sacred texts in order to maintain patriarchal control over women. She argues that the original writers of the Jewish book deliberatly interpreted the word of God such that it ensured the marginalise of women within faith. Believes religion is a conservative force as opposed to a revolutionary force.
• El Saadawi - liberal feminists


  Emphasised the role of religion in the perpetuation of the patriarchal oppression of women. Focuses on experiences of muslim women. Koran states that stoning is a legitimate punishment for adultery for both men and women the fact that the same religion allows men to have multiple wives means that they have less need for adultness. Religion helps to maintain functions to maintain the status quo; it is a conservative force as opposed to a revolutionary force. Argues religion has the potential to be an initiator of change.
• Plaskow - liberal feminist


  In new traditions, women were given their own initiation conformation ritual the bat mitzvah and could take an active part in many of the rituals. Re-interpretated the Adam and Eve story. Women were given are opportunity to take their own initiation conformation. Religion can change. There are alternative readings of sacred texts that are more female friendly.
• New Christian Right - religion as a vehicle for reactionary change


  Politically and morally conservative, Protestant fundamentalist movement in America which wants to 'turn the clock back' - they are opposed to gay rights, abortion rights and divorce. Made effective use of media to gain support; also intervened in political campaigns. Bruce argues the NCR have been largely unsuccessful because their fundamentalist values clash with the liberal and democratic values of American society.
• Bruce - cultural defence


  Where religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic or other group identity in a struggle against a hostile threat. Internal threat e.g. more common in the West with the move towards more secular or liberal values e.g. new Christian Right. External threat e.g. more common in developing countries people are resisting change thus upon them from outside such as American foreign policy e.g. Islamic fundamentalism.
• Weber - religion and social change


  Social action theorist - role of sociology is to understand the meaning people give to ideas and events. Religion is often an important part of what shapes a persons worldview. Weber is interested in how religious ideas themselves, can be a vehicle for social change - it is nor always a conservative force.
• Theodicy of disprivilege


  set of religious ideas that explains why poorer groups suffer-poverty is a set of challenges to be endured or overcome.
• Theodicy of misfortune


  Central to pentecostalism churches in Latin America which attract poorer congregations.
• Calvinism


  Form of Protestantism founded by John Calvin during reformation. Weber notes that many past societies had capitalism in the sense of greed and wealth, which they often spent on luxury consumption. Predestination meant that God has predetermined which would be saved. Divine transcendence which meant that God went above and beyond this world and so incomparably greater than any mortal.
• Interpretivists approach to religion


  Rather than seeing religion as an external structural force that moulds individuals in to social conformity, interpretivists study the way religion acts as a source of meaning and helps them to make sense of their world. These approaches have some links to the functionalist view.

  Berger has two ideas:

  - religion acts as a sacred canopy

  -religion provides a shared universe of meaning.
• Hercieu-Leyer - culture amnesia

  Agrees that there has been a dramatic decline in 'institutional' religion. Due to cultural amnesia- loss of 'collective memory' we are no longer socialised in to a religious identity. But people haven't turned their back on religion - we are now 'spiritual shoppers'. Pilgrims follow an individualistic path towards self-discovery e.g. new age beliefs. Coverts want to recreate a sense of belonging and community e.g. anglican churches.
• New Age Movement - - growth of the 'self spirituality'


  The decline in traditional religion has left a 'gap in the marketplace'. Heelas and Woodhead argues that there has been a shift from 'doing one's duty' to self spirituality - the idea of finding situation within one's own self. Bruce argues that the New Age beliefs are linked to secular values- self attainment, career success, monetary security and therefore its a 'weak religion'. New Age Movements are based on notions of individualism so are connected to rationality.
• Growth of fundamentalism


  Fundamentalism is both a product of postmodernity and a reaction to it. More risks, uncertainties. Fundamentalism could be seen as a way of resisting change and diversity brought about by globalisation. Fundamentalism is an example of how there is a conflict between both different religions and within the same religion.
• Davie - believing without belonging


  Greater freedom and individualism has led to decline in people joining organisations, including churches. This has led to a growth in privatised religion i.e. practicing religion in a more individualised way.
• Davie - vicarious religion


  Davie argues that in Europe, the major national churches are seen as public utilities, or a sort of 'spiritual health service' that, like the nos, is there for everyone to use whenever they need to. Davie argues that secularisation theory assumes that modernisation affects every society in the same way, causing the decline in religion. However, Davie argues that religious belief is delivering at greater rate than participation so this argument doesn't hold any weight. Most people may not attend church but still hold tight connections with the church.
• Weber - rationalisation and disenchantment


  For Weber the medieval Catholic worldview that dominated Europe saw the world as an ;enchanted garden'. In webers view the protestant reformation begins the 'disenchantment' of the world - it squeezes out the magical and religious ways of thinking and starts off the rationalisation process that leads to the dominance of the rational mode of thought.
• Bruce - rationalisation and disenchantment


  Bruce argues that the growth of a technological worldview has largely replaced religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen. People in modern society seek scientific explanations that are based of evidence. Religious explanations are a 'last resort..
• Postmodernist Lyotard - rationalisation argument


  Leotard would argue that science is now merely one 'story' amongst many and has its monolpoly of the truth. This is a growing distrust of scientific and rational ways of thinking.
• Parsons - structural differentiation


  Structural differentiation is a process of socialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society. Separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution. This is what happened as it is no longer functionally important.
• Bruce - privatisation of religion


  Bruce agues that religion has become separate from wider society and lost many of its former function. It has become privatised; confined to the private sphere of the home and family with religious beliefs becoming a matter of personal choice. Even where religion continues to perform its functions it must conform to the requirements of the secular state.
• Berger - religious diversity


  religion acted as a sacred canopy. This gave belief an extra plausibility as they were unlikely to be questioned. In contemporary multi-faith societies we have religious pluralism and religion may no longer command the respect of the whole society. This led to a crisis of credibility for religion - diversity undermines the 'plausibility structure' - religious beliefs become relative rather than absolute.
• Lyon - disneyfication of religion


  Poatmoden society had transformed religion. The increased importance of media technology and the growth of consumerism - all changing the nature of religion. One key feature is that religion has become disembodied from real, local places of worship to either secular spaces or a virtual spiritual space. Religion is just another commodity o. the market shelf.