GEN BIO

• REPRODUCTION 

  Reproduction produces offspring 

  It is a process by which an organism produces offspring or young. 

  • All organisms reproduce, if they didn’t, no species would survive a single generation. 
• Two types of Reproduction

  Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
• SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

  Sexual reproduction requires two parents. - Sexual reproduction requires a male and female. 

  • Each parent contributes half their genetic material, or DNA, to the offspring.
• FINDING A MATE

  Behavior  affects probability of  reproduction

  Animals have adapted a variety of courtship and mating behaviors to increase the probability of finding a mate.
• POLLINATION

  The process of fertilizing flowers by transferring pollen from the male parts to the female parts
• Specific structures in each plant play a part in plant sexual reproduction.

  PETALS, SEPALS, STAMEN, PISTIL 
• The Style is a stalk structure between the ovary and the stigma. 

  The Ovary is responsible for producing the egg cells. 

  The Stigma has an adhesive area that allows the pollen from the stamen to stick to the pistil.
• SEED DISPERSAL 

  After fertilization, seeds must be dispersed. If seeds take root and grow too close to the parent plant, the offspring will compete with the parent for resources. Therefore, plants have evolved ways of spreading seeds over larger areas to minimize competition between parents and offspring.
• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

  The process by which offspring are produced from a single parent organism without the involvement of gametes or the fusion of genetic material from two individuals. Asexual reproduction methods include binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and sporulation
• BINARY FISSION

  Form of asexual reproduction seen in single-celled organisms like bacteria and some protists.

  • The organism duplicates its genetic material and then divides into two identical daughter cells.
• BUDDING

  Observed in some multicellular organisms such as yeast, hydra, and certain plants. In budding

  Small outgrowth or bud forms on the parent organism. 

  • This bud grows, eventually detaching from the parent to become a new, independent organism. 
• FRAGMENTATION

  Seen in organisms like some flatworms, sea stars, and certain plants.  

  • In fragmentation, the parent organism breaks into two or more fragments, each of which can grow into a new individual
• SPORULATION

  • Process by which fungi produce and release spores, which are specialized reproductive structures capable of germinating into new fungal individuals.
• ISOGAMY

  Isogamy refers to a form of sexual reproduction in which gametes (reproductive cells) are similar or identical in size and shape.
• HETEROGAMY

  Heterogamy refers to a form of sexual reproduction in which gametes are dissimilar in size and/or shape.
• BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION

  Also known as DIOECIOUS reproduction  refers specifically to the condition where an individual organism possesses both male and female reproductive organs.
• An example of bisexual reproduction is found in certain hermaphroditic animals, such as earthworms.
• NUTRIENT

  Refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism. 
• The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are: Autotrophs & Heterotrophs. 
• AUTOTROPHS

  • Organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their own food. 


  Examples: plants, chemosynthetic bacteria
• HETEROTROPHS

  • Organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy from other organisms. 


  Examples: animals, fungi
• Routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant roots:

  SYMPLAST AND APOPLAST ROUTE
• SYMPLAST ROUTE - through cytoplasm or plasmodesmata
• APOPLAST ROUTE - along cell walls
• Specialized Absorptive Structures:

  ROOT HAIRS, ROOT NODULES, MYCORRHIZAE
• ROOT HAIRS

  Slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface area available for absorption.
• ROOT NODULES

  Localized swellings in roots of certain plants

  where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the plant.
• MYCORRHIZAE (singular, mycorrhiza)

  A symbiotic interaction between a young root and a fungus. The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root cells while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb from the soil.
• CALORIE

  A unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food.


  The greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven, 1996)
• CARBOHYDRATES

  Serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. Grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables.

  Contain 4 Calories per gram.
• PROTEIN

  Can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. 
• FATS

  Used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures;
• ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

  Include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat because they could not be synthesized inside the body.
• Essential amino acids - needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes
• Essential fatty acids - used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans. Sources of linoleic acid include vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and certain types of fish.
• Vitamins - organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C. 
• Different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms:

  SUBSTRATE-FEEDERS, FILTER-FEEDERS, FLUID-FEEDERS, BULK-FEEDERS
• SUBSTRATE-FEEDERS

  Animals that live in or on their food source.


  Examples: Earthworms and caterpillar
• FILTER-FEEDERS

  Include many aquatic animals which draw in

  water and strain small organisms and food particles present in the medium. 


  EXAMPLE: WHALE
• FLUID-FEEDERS

  Suck fluids containing nutrients from a living

  host.

  Examples: mosquitoes and leeches