AS Level Psychology- Paper 2

• Experiment

  An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV)
• Types of experiments


  • Laboratory experiments
  • Field experiments
  • Natural experiments
• Laboratory experiments


  • There is an IV, DV, and strict controls
  • Looks for a causal relationship
  • Conducted in a setting which is not the usual environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing
• Field experiments


  • Conducted in a setting which is the normal environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing
  • Researcher has control over a few variables, but it difficult to control all variables
• Natural experiments


  • An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter
  • Researcher studies the effect of an existing difference or change
  • Not a true experiment as the experimenter cannot manipulate the levels of the IV
• Strengths of laboratory experiments


  • High levels of standardization hence it can be replicated easily to test for reliability
  • High levels of control hence researches can be more confident that the IV is directly affecting the DV
• Weaknesses of laboratory experiments


  • Artificial Environment hence it lacks ecological validity
  • Participants may show demand characteristics
• Strengths of field experiments

  • Realistic setting hence high ecological validity
  • Limited demand characteristics so behaviour is more likely to be natural and valid
• Weaknesses of field experiments


  • Situational variables are difficult to control so it is tough know if the IV is affecting the DV
  • Issues in breaking ethics since the participants do not know that they're taking part in a study
• Strengths of natural experiments


  • High ecological validity because the IV is naturally occurring
  • Valid representation of a person's behaviour
• Weaknesses of natural experiments


  • Difficult to know whether the IV caused an effect on the DV
  • Difficult to replicate to test for reliability as the event is naturally occurring
• Experimental condition


  One or more of the situations in an experiment which represent the different levels of the IV and are compared, either with one another or with the control condition
• Control condition


  A situation in which the IV is absent, compared to the experimental condition(s)
• Types of self-reports


  • Questionnaires
  • Interviews
• Questionnaires


  A research method that involves asking questions, mainly written, to gain information from the participants
• Types of questionnaires


  • Likert scales
  • Rating scales
  • Open questions
  • Closed questions
• Interviews


  A research method using verbal questions asked directly to the participants
• Types of interviews


  • Structured
  • Semi-structured
  • Unstructured
• Strengths of questionnaires


  • Participants are more likely to give truthful answers as it does not involve talking to someone face-to-face
  • A large sample can answer the questionnaire in a short time span which should increase the representativeness and generalizability of the findings
• Weaknesses of questionnaires


  • Participants may give socially desirable answers
  • Too many closed questions may force an answer that does not reflect the participant's opinion
• Strengths of interviews


  • Lots of open questions will make participants reveal reasons as to why they behave in a particular way or have a particular opinion
• Weaknesses of interviews


  • Participants may be less likely to give truthful answers as they are face to face with the interviewer or because of social-desirability
• Case studies


  A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data specific to that instance
• Strengths of case studies


  • As researchers are focused on one individual, they can collect rich, in-depth data which adds validity to the findings
  • High ecological validity as participants are studied in their everyday lives
• Weaknesses of case studies


  • As the research is focused on one person, the case is unique which makes generalisations difficult
  • Attachments may be formed between researcher and participant which may reduce objectivity of data collected and analysis of it. This could reduce the validity of the findings.
• Observations


  A research method that involves watching human or animal behaviour
• Types of observers


  • Overt/covert
  • Participant/non-participant
• Types of observations


  • Structured/unstructured
  • Naturalistic/controlled
• Strengths of observations

  • If participants are unaware of the observation taking place - increases ecological validity
  • As behaviours are 'counted', data can be analysed statistically with minimal bias
• Weaknesses of observations

  • If the participants are aware of the observation, they may not act 'naturally' but show more socially desirable behaviour. This can reduce the validity of the findings
  • It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is naturalistic as many variables cannot be controlled which reduces the reliability
• Strengths of participant observation

  • High ecological validity as the participants are observed in a real-life setting
  • As the observers become involved with the group, they are more likely to understand the motives and reasons for behaviours which increases the validity of the findings
• Weaknesses of participant observation


  • There are ethical problems of informed consent
  • The presence of an outsider can change the behaviours of the group members. This lowers the validity of the findings
• Strengths of non-participant observation


  • Participants behaviour will not be affected by observation because the observer is out of sight
• Weaknesses of non-participant observation


  • It can be difficult to make detailed observations and to produce qualitative data that allows understandings as to why the behaviours are occurring
• Strengths of structured observation

  • The behavioural checklist allows objective quantitative data to be collected which can then be analysed statistically
• Weaknesses of structured observation

  • The sampling of observed behaviour tends to be restricted and does not give an idea of the reasons as to why the behaviours are occurring
• Strengths of unstructured observation


  • They can generate in-depth, rich quantitative data that can help explain why behaviours are occurring
• Weaknesses of unstructured observation


  • Observers may easily be drawn to eye catching behaviours and hence may not fully represent all the behaviours
• Strengths of naturalistic observation


  • As participants are unaware that they are being watched, they should behave more naturally, removing the chances of demand characteristics
  • High ecological validity as the observation takes place in a natural setting
• Weaknesses of naturalistic observation


  • Very little control over extraneous variables which makes it difficult to draw a cause and effect relationship
  • Replication may be difficult as there cannot be a totally standardised procedure, hence making it difficult to test for reliability