Napoleon

• Personality

  He could inspire his men with his leadership. He had energy, vision, intelligence and the ability to organise and single-mindedly pursue his aims. His violent temper and willpower would persuade others not to get in his way.
• Charismatic

  Self-important, Machiavellian, hard-hearted, arrogant and ruthless. Such were his feelings of self-importance that he exploited others when they were of value and blamed others when things went wrong.
• How he came to power

  On 10 November he spoke first to the Ancients. Napoleon was acknowledged to be a poor speaker and, although he claimed to have made an impassioned speech defending liberty and equality, it is more likely that he rambled on without making much sense. He then spoke to the Five Hundred. The mood changed. Napoleon may have tried to sound like a defender of the Revolution but they thought he was plotting to seize power with Army support.
• Marxist historians think that Napoleon was popular with the bourgeoisie because he would defend their newly-acquired investments (biens nationaux) and stimulate commerce through warfare, but this was not clear at the time of the coup
• Napoleon's enforcement of centralised control of France

  • A powerful state apparatus. This included creating a police state with prefects overseeing administration in the provinces. Napoleon personally appointed competent prefects who reported directly to the Ministries of the Interior and Police. The prefects' duties included enforcing conscription, overseeing tax collection, monitoring food supplies and prices, maintaining local administration, gathering information on discontent, spying on politically dangerous individuals, spreading propaganda, and promoting commerce and trade. Napoleon also relied on the Minister of Police, Joseph Fouché, and the police to spy on rebellious individuals, search for deserters, supervise prisons, censor, and provide intelligence. Special courts were set up to deal with political crimes, and imprisonment without trial was reintroduced in 1810. Despite these measures, opposition was subdued, with only 2,500 people in prison for political offenses in 1814.
• 2,500 people in prison for political offenses in 1814.
• Napoleon's religious policies

  "The people must have a religion and religion must be in the hands of the government." Aimed to gain Catholic support for his dynasty.
• In 1801, Napoleon signed a Concordat with Pope Pius VII

  The state would pay the clergy a salary and make appointments to senior positions. Catholicism regained its place as the official religion of most Frenchmen.
• This suited Napoleon. The Revolution had split the Church. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy had forced a hard core of clergy into opposition. They were all the more dangerous because they were identified with royalists. This was a perfect way to gain Catholic support for his dynasty rather than the royalist cause. It might bring the country behind the Empire, heal old wounds and make it easier to control the people.
• Organic Articles of 1802

  Napoleon ensured that the clergy, in particular the bishops, were controlled by the government. Once Napoleon knew he could appoint bishops, then they could become an arm of the State, encouraging conscription or relaying government propaganda and decrees, and could be used to reinforce its authority.
• Changes were made to the Catholic catechism, much to the Pope's anger. In 1806, however, this went beyond political control. Changes were made to the Catholic catechism, much to the Pope's anger. Napoleon was made a saint. August 16 became St. Napoleon's Day,Napoleon's lack of genuine interest in promoting Catholicism was made clear when he took a tolerant attitude to not only Protestants but also Jews.
• Napoleon won over the clergy initially by equating conscription with opposing God and denying confession. However, the Pope disapproved of the Concordat and the clergy remained stubbornly royalist. Private church schools became popular, but the clergy never completely abandoned the Bourbon cause and their annoyance was evident when Napoleon annexed the Papal States and arrested the Pope in 1809.
• Education in Napoleonic France

  • The Imperial catechism for French children under Napoleon emphasised duties towards the Emperor, including love, respect, obedience, fidelity, military service, and contributions for the defence of the Empire. Education priorities varied based on social status, with ordinary children expected to focus on obedience and moral education, while sons of notables were geared towards state service, primarily in the military. The education system in 1802 selected the best boys for military education, with a standardised curriculum and the baccalauréat exam. Free education was limited to the sons of officers, and after 1806, the Imperial University oversaw education with centralised control.
• However, there was a lack of emphasis on research, particularly in Science. Napoleon's control over teachers allowed him to influence political and moral opinions, but this approach did not appeal to the property-owning classes, who often sent their sons to private church schools beyond the regimented state system instead.
• Only the better-off could afford it.
• Napoleon's financial and economic policies

  • Until 1806, Napoleon effectively financed his armies without resorting to heavy taxation or excessive debt. The system instilled confidence and efficiently utilised France's wealth for the Treasury. A Central Treasury oversaw tax officials and prefects, closely monitoring expenditure and income. The Bank of France, later under state control, regulated the money supply and transitioned to metal currency like the silver franc. To boost Treasury funds, indirect taxes and customs duties were raised, including quadrupling taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and salt. The bourgeoisie supported the government due to stable land taxes and interest payments on the National Debt. Foreign conquests provided plunder to fund the armies, maintain low prices, and create jobs, helping Napoleon balance the budget.
• Banque de France

  Created on 18 January 1800 by Napoléon. The public's distrust of paper money could only be overcome if the distribution of such money were entrusted to an institution that remained independent from the Government-success compared to previous attempts.
• The Continental System

  • Napoleon aimed to weaken Britain and protect the Napoleonic Empire by creating a vast market for French goods. Blockade Measures: As First Consul in 1803, Napoleon prohibited British goods from northwestern Europe. The Berlin Decrees of 1806 escalated the blockade: goods from British and colonial territories would be excluded and seized. By 1807, the Treaty of Tilsit brought Austria, Russia, Denmark, Sweden into the blockade. The Milan Decrees (December 1807) tightened restrictions further: neutral ships visiting British ports risked cargo confiscation.
• However, some regions benefited: Strasbourg and Marseilles developed trade with Germany, Italy, and the east. Paris and Lyons saw luxury goods flourish. French industrialists gained a protected market within the Empire. Conquered peoples were compelled to buy French goods at inflated prices.
• No significant growth under Napoleon. Population growth was slow. The impact of birth control and warfare, particularly the loss of young men during conflicts like the Russian campaign, hindered population growth and subsequently limited advancements in agriculture and industry. Capital was scarce, technology lagged behind, and farming techniques remained outdated despite increased food production until around 1811. French industry largely remained in a 'pre-industrial state'.
• While there were some advancements in sectors like the chemical industry and iron production due to Napoleonic warfare, overall industrial wages declined, often falling below rising prices and taxes.
• The Banque de France

  Experienced a number of difficulties in its early years, including a crisis in the government's finances and a fall in its gold reserves that restricted the redemption of bank notes but the currency was stable in a way that it hadn't been during the ancien régime or the revolutionary period.
• The Continental System caused disruption not only to Britain but also to France itself. Enforcing the system proved impossible, and smuggling became rampant. The French navy's weakness after the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) hindered effective implementation. Despite this strain, Britain's economy endured, but significant distress occurred.
• Effects on France: France's Atlantic trading areas and shipbuilding industries suffered. The linen industry in the north and west was ruined.
• Napoleon's attempts to extend the Continental System proved catastrophic. This was partly the motive behind the invasions of Spain and Russia - two campaigns which cost France dear. Furthermore, the resentment which it caused throughout the Empire contributed to the growth of Nationalism and opposition, which explains why the Empire collapsed so rapidly: the Continental System had proved to be a liability.
• Napoleonic Code

  • Significant legal reform effort led by Napoleon. The Civil Code of 1804 aimed to streamline and clarify French law, which had previously been fragmented between different regions. However, this unified system was more repressive and less liberal, particularly in terms of gender equality. The code emphasised male rights in marriage and property, with husbands having control over their families. Workmen needed permits to work, enabling close supervision by the police. Napoleon sought to establish stability and social control through a strict framework of laws, including Commercial, Criminal, and Penal Codes. Property owners were favoured in the legal system, with property titles transferred to those who had purchased national assets. Censorship was used to control information and limit opposition, with strict regulations on publications, theatres, and artists.
• Independent ideas that failed to conform to those of Napoleon were not encouraged. The police state did its job effectively. Opposition was limited. Patronage, honours, police control and 'packing' such groups as the legislature with supporters, were all methods which largely succeeded. The network of spies made sure that its enemies rarely troubled the regime.
• Only two problems persisted: desertions and avoidance of conscription reached alarming proportions by 1813, and punishments included forced labour or lengthy terms of imprisonment. Gangs of vagabonds who terrorised rural areas during periods of economic depression.
• While he claimed to uphold the ideals of the French Revolution, he also implemented policies that contradicted those principles. He preserved key aspects of the Revolution, such as liberty and equality, but also centralised power and limited freedoms. Napoleon's rule saw a mix of revolutionary continuity and pre-revolutionary elements, showcasing his ability to adapt to different situations. Ultimately, his actions reflect a pragmatic approach rather than a strict adherence to any one ideology.
• Napoleon's military campaigns in Italy and Egypt
• France's conquests beyond its 'natural' frontiers - the Rhine, Alps and Pyrenées
• In March 1796, Napoleon set out with 35,000, the Pope and the Kingdom of Naples felt sufficiently threatened that they signed an alliance with the French and paid an indemnity.

  Napoleon faced renewed threats from the Austrians. Four separate armies were sent against him and each was defeated. In early 1797, Napoleon entered Mantua - hę now dominated Italy.
• In May 1798, in command of the Army of the Orient, he set off to strike a blow against the British

  Malta was taken on the way to Aboukir Bay, in Egypt. This time, things did not go according to plan. Horatio Nelson arrived and his British fleet destroyed the French in Aboukir Bay.
• Napoleon nevertheless scored a victory at the Battle of the Pyramids, but then faced
• Napoleon's conquests

  Beyond France's 'natural' frontiers - the Rhine, Alps and Pyrenées
• Napoleon set out with 35,000 men

  March 1796
• Napoleon's conquests


  The Pope and the Kingdom of Naples felt sufficiently threatened and signed an alliance with the French and paid an indemnity
• Napoleon faced renewed threats from the Austrians


  Four separate armies were sent against him and each was defeated
• Napoleon entered Mantua and dominated Italy


  Early 1797
• Treaty of Campo Formio


  By which France gained Belgium, parts of the Venetian Republic and large areas of Italy. New French republics were formed in Italy and Switzerland.