AP Euro unit 4

• Scientific Revolution


  Traditionally held views of the universe were challenged and changed by scientists
• Enlightenment


  Philosophers espoused new theories in human behavior
• Scientists, like the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and his heliocentric theory, challenged the traditionally-held sources of power and the traditionally-held views of the cosmos that were espoused by the Catholic Church
• Enlightenment philosophers, such as English writer and thinker John Locke, advocated for the natural rights of humans, and articulated that the power of the government should come from the consent of the governed, not divine right
• The "debate about women" continued with Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which stands in contrast to Rousseau's exclusion of women from both educational and political spheres
• Although philosophers like Voltaire challenged the power of absolute government in France, it was brought into the government in Central and Eastern Europe, as Austria, Prussia, and Russia embraced specific Enlightenment philosophies
• Key Vocab


  • Scientific method
  • Scientific Revolution
  • Heliocentric theory
  • Deductive method
  • Enlightenment
  • Philosophes
  • Deism
  • Social contract
  • State of nature
  • Salons
  • Physiocrat
  • Neoclassicalism
• Main Characters

  • Andreas Vesalius
  • Johannes Kepler
  • Isaac Newton
  • Francis Bacon
  • John Locke
  • Thomas Hobbes
  • Voltaire
  • Rousseau
  • Baron de Montesquieu
  • Denis Diderot
  • Cesare Beccaria
  • Adam Smith
  • Francois Quesnay
  • Mary Wollstonecraft
  • Baron d'Holbach
  • Catherine II of Russia
  • Joseph II of Austria
  • Frederick II of Prussia
• A continuation of humanist thought, scientists sought to determine the laws that governed the natural world; similarly, the Enlightenment philosophers sought to determine the laws that governed human nature
• The printing press directly contributed both to the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment through the spread of literacy, spread of learning, rise of Royal Societies and scientific journals, and collaborative communication
• The Catholic Church had taught that God placed the earth at the center of the universe, but new ideas and methods in astronomy led individuals such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Johannes Kepler to question those traditionally held views
• Copernicus' heliocentric theory


  Copernicus posited that the sun was at the center of the solar system, and that planets rotated around the sun. This stood in contrast with the widely-held geocentric theory, which was the belief that the earth was at the center
• Galileo was brought before the Catholic Inquisition because he was responsible for proving and supporting the heliocentric theory, which was a direct challenge to the Catholic Church and its authority, and Galileo was forced to recant his beliefs
• William Harvey's new ideas represented a change to Galen's Four Humors theory by identifying the circulatory system, which furthered medical discoveries and proved that the body worked as an integrated system
• Greek reasoning blended with Christianity to form scholasticism, which was primarily based on natural philosophy and deductive reasoning. While many scientists embraced new theories of the universe, some natural philosophers continued the traditionally held view of the cosmos, such as Isaac Newton, who is most famous for his gravitational laws
• Inductive method


  Observation -> data collection -> theory
• Deductive method


  Observation -> theory is developed -> theory is tested and experiments are run
• Diderot's Encyclopédie contributed to the advancement of scientific thought by organizing new theories and information from the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, allowing people to build upon others' scientific, historical, and philosophical thought
• Scientists and their contributions to the Scientific Revolution

  • Andreas Vesalius - His dissection of cadavers and precise drawings led to a better understanding of the circulatory system
  • Johannes Kepler - His three laws of planetary motion supported Copernicus' heliocentric theory
  • Isaac Newton - In his most famous work Principia Mathematica, he articulated the three laws of motion
  • Antonie van Leeuwenhoek - Because he created the microscope, he is often considered the "Father of Microbiology"
  • Francis Bacon - His focus on observation and experimentation created the basis for inductive reasoning
  • Maria (Kirch) Winkelmann - This female German scientist discovered a comet and helped prepare an astronomical calendar
  • Emilie du Châtelet - She translated Newton's work to make it more accessible to the public
• Women's involvement in the Scientific Revolution contributed to the "debate about women" because women were not given the same access to educational opportunities as men, but continued to further scientific thought and development, oftentimes through (and therefore credited to) their husbands
• In his treatise Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes argued that people within a state of nature are corrupt; therefore, he supported a government that ruled with absolute power
• Locke believed that it was the duty of the government to protect the peoples' natural rights - life, liberty, and property - and argued that the people should overthrow the government if the government fails to protect those rights
• Voltaire strongly advocated for freedom of speech because he was born in France and was exiled to England, where he encountered religious toleration and more economic 'freedom' (nobles paid taxes). Due to this, he wrote excessively about his critiques of the French government and the Catholic Church; as a result, he was jailed multiple times and wrote under a pen name
• Hobbes supported absolute monarchy due to his belief that humans in their state of nature are easily corrupted, while Montesquieu argued that a separation of powers was the most effective governmental system because it limited the possibility for corruption if multiple people shared power
• Beccaria's On Crimes and Punishments applied Enlightenment thought to societal problems by arguing that laws should preserve the social contract and benefit society as a whole, and that the punishment given should fit the crime committed. He believed that justice should not be vengeful, was anti-torture, and desired reorganization of the justice system
• While Jean-Jacques Rousseau advocated strongly for childhood education, he believed that women should be excluded from political spheres; this put him at odds with Enlightenment philosopher Mary Wollstonecraft, who believed that women only appeared inferior to men because they lack access to education
• Salons, often hosted by women (who also controlled the guest list), were a place for philosophers and the learned to discuss their theories, share their works and hear the works of other intellectuals, debate, and receive and give criticism
• Physiocrats


  Economists who favored free trade and open markets as opposed to mercantilism
• The belief that the wealth of nations was derived from agriculture was supported by the philosopher Francois Quesnay
• Determinism


  The theory that there is no such thing as "free will". All matter is subject to physical laws, so therefore there is no freedom of will, as everything is determined by the laws of physics. Holbach believes that even voluntary acts are not free
• Religious views changed as a result of the Enlightenment through the rise of deism, increased religious toleration, religion becoming an increasingly private affair, and the increase of skepticism and atheism
• Plague disappeared as a major epidemic disease due to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and her introduction of inoculation
• Social factors that limited population growth during the 18th century included prevailing marriage patterns, the Agricultural Revolution leading to urbanization, and the rise of birth control methods
• Rousseau supported child-centered education, and educational opportunities increased, reflecting an increased focus on child-rearing
• Hogarth's prints highlighted social problems that occurred as a result of urbanization in the 18th century, such as pollution, poverty, crime, prostitution, and other social problems that increased as more urbanization occurred, with governments struggling to support the amount of people in their city, leading to an increase in social and cultural divisions between the rich and poor
• Printed material contributed to the transmission of knowledge during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment by making the public more literate and able to discuss and share new knowledge and theories, leading to the development of public opinion
• Rembrandt's Night Watch signifies a change to artistic movements prior to the 18th century by continuing the shift away from religion and toward secularism and humanism, painting a common militia company rather than focusing on royalty
• Whereas Baroque art and music promoted religious feelings and illustrated state power, Neoclassicism focused on citizenship and political participation
• Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii supports the statement above by showing a clear harkening back to Classical Rome, depicting patriotic duty and a call to arms, which became a symbol of the French Revolution
• Authors whose writing reflected the emerging commercial society and pervasive Enlightenment ideals

  • Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Goethe, Jane Austen