Psychology

• Stages/ages/goals of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

  sensorimotor stage (0-2 years old)- Object permanence

  preoperational stage (2-7 years old)-Symbolic thought

  concrete operational stage (7-11 years old)-Operational thought

  formal operational stage (12 years and older)-Abstract concepts
• Enriched Enviroment

  An environment offering many opportunities for activity with lots of sensory and intellectual stimulation

  e.g. having colourful toys, socializing, having the right amount of education, having sensuous stuff
• Deprived Enviroment

  An absence of environmental conditions that stimulate intellectual and behavioural development, such as educational, recreational, and social opportunities

  e.g. Lack of toys, educational toys, no interaction with adults, no colour
• Multi Store Model

  According to the multistore model of memory (also known as the modal model), proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, memory consists of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
• Levels of processing (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)

  There are three levels of processing, namely, the structural level(looks like), the phonemic level(sounds like), and the semantic level(means). They fall into two forms of information processing, deep and shallow. Shallow processing includes the structural and phonemic levels. Deep processing includes the semantic level.
• Wokring Memory Baddeley & Hitch's (2001) Working Memory Model focused on only STM. According to them, there are four components of Working Memory:

  • Central Executive-t is able to store a very limited amount of information (7 items) for a very limited time.
  • Visuospatial sketchpad (The Inner Eye)-processes visual information short-term.
  • Phonological Loop (The Inner Voice)-nd processes auditory information (e.g., speech, music, sound)
  • Episodic Buffer- A single complex "episode" is made up of material from many different sources. It changes LTM to STM so that it can be used
• Short-term memory is the capacity to recall a small amount of information from a recent time period.  Long-term memory is the capacity to recall memories from a longer time ago
• Components of Criminology  

  1. The making of laws
  2. The breaking of laws
  3. Societies reaction to breaking laws
• Three cognitive processes

  1. Processing: analyzing and considering available information
  2. Judgement: making an assessment based on the analysis of information
  3. Decision-making: drawing a conclusion and deciding how to act based on the judgement made
• System 1

  • Fast
  • Noncomsious
  • Automatic
  • Based on experisences
• System 2

  • Slow
  • conscious
  • controlled
  • Based on consequences
• Differential Association Theory

  Shows us that our behavior is heavily influenced by the people we interact with and the environments we are part of.

  Strengths: they can explain different types of crimes and crimes committed by people from different backgrounds

  Weakness- does not explain why crimes decreases with age; it is also untestable
• Rational Choice Theroy

  • People consider their decisions before they commit a crime (they weigh the possible pleasures from committing the crime against the possible punishment).
  • people make a cost-benefit analysis
  • criminals believe the benefits of committing the crime outweigh the possible costs
• Milgram Experiment

   examined people's willingness to obey authority. Participants in the study were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner, even when that obedience caused harm to the learner.
• Rationale Choice Theory


  Theory that explains criminal behaviour as a rational choice made by the offender
• Milgram's obedience experiment


  Experiment that examined the willingness of participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience
• Phineas Gage


  A real case study where a man experienced damage to his frontal lobe, which caused him to become unable to follow through with plans, disrespectful, prone to swearing, impatient and impulsive, despite previously being described as efficient, capable and persistent
• Vietnam head injury study

  A longitudinal study on Vietnam War veterans that gathered data on aggressive behaviours of veterans with brain damage
• Veterans with damage to the prefrontal cortex

  Showed higher levels of violence and aggression compared to veterans with damage to other areas of the brain