Unit 4

• The Enlightenment (1715 – 1789)


  Intellectuals and other thinkers began to see ancient concepts from a fresh viewpoint and advocated skepticism, the study of science, and reasoning over superstition
• The Enlightenment


  • Greater emphasis was placed on individualism and religion (separate from religion)
  • When painters were no longer limited to religious forms, the subject matter of artwork began to change
  • This age witnessed a growing appreciation for the natural world
  • This paved the way for the creation of numerous new artistic trends and genres
• French Revolution (1789-1799)


  People revolted at the unequal treatment of the Third Estate (commoners) by the government, persistent food shortages, and financial distress after fighting in the American Revolution
• French Revolution


  • Symbolism in a number of paintings expressed political opinions and conveyed political messages about the current events
  • Romanticism, which concentrated on emotion and expressed the sublime, was one of the aesthetic trends that followed the French Revolution
• Publishing of the Communist Manifesto (1848)


  • The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848
  • It was first published in German in London
  • This was commissioned by the Communist League, a political organization that sought to unite various socialist groups
  • The text outlines the principles of communism and critiques capitalism
  • The Manifesto argues that the history of society is a history of class struggle, and that the proletariat (working class) will eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie (capitalist class)
  • The Manifesto had a significant impact on political and social movements around the world, and is considered one of the most influential political texts in history
• Revolutions of 1848


  • The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political uprisings across Europe
  • They were sparked by economic hardship, political repression, and demands for greater democracy and national unity
  • The revolutions began in France in February 1848 and quickly spread to other countries including Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary
  • Many of the revolutions were ultimately unsuccessful, with conservative forces reasserting control in most countries by the end of the year
  • The revolutions did lead to some important reforms, such as the abolition of serfdom in Austria-Hungary and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in France
• Perry Expedition and the Forced Opening of Japan (1853-1868)


  • Perry Expedition occurred between 1853-1854
  • Led by Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy
  • Goal was to establish diplomatic relations with Japan and open trade
  • Japan had been isolated from the rest of the world for over 200 years
  • Negotiations were difficult due to language and cultural barriers
  • Treaty of Kanagawa was signed in 1854, allowing American ships to refuel and resupply in two Japanese ports
  • This forced Japan to open up to the world and establish trade relations with other countries
• World Wars I and II (1914-1945)

  • Both World Wars I and II had a profound impact on global economy, populations, and the environment
  • Like to earlier wars in history, art from World War I and World War II contains messages about the political and social climate
  • In particular, World War I gave rise to artistic styles such as Surrealism (abstract form intended to perplex the observer) and Expressionism (work that conveyed the creators' inner sentiments)
• The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)


  • The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that took place in the 1920s and 1930s in Harlem, New York City
  • It was also known as the "New Negro Movement" and was characterized by a celebration of African American culture, art, music, and literature
  • The movement was fueled by the Great Migration, which brought thousands of African Americans from the South to the North in search of better opportunities
  • Prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance include Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Duke Ellington, and Louis Armstrong
  • The movement had a significant impact on American culture and helped to break down racial barriers and stereotypes
• Interactions Within and Across Cultures in Later European and American Art

  • Influences of Non-Western Cultures
  • Influences of Eastern Cultures
  • Influences of Other Western Cultures
• Influences of Non-Western Cultures

  • Non-Western cultures, such as African, Asian, and Native American, influenced later European and American art
  • Artists were fascinated by the exoticism and spirituality of these cultures
  • They incorporated non-Western motifs, patterns, and techniques into their works
• Influences of Eastern Cultures

  • Eastern cultures, such as Japanese and Chinese, also influenced later European and American art
  • Artists were attracted to the simplicity, elegance, and harmony of these cultures
  • They adopted Eastern techniques, such as woodblock printing and calligraphy, and incorporated them into their works
• Influences of Other Western Cultures

  • Western cultures also influenced later European and American art
  • Artists were inspired by the art of their contemporaries and predecessors from other Western countries
  • They borrowed styles, techniques, and themes from these artists
• Artistic Movements of Later Europe and Americas Art

  • Rococo (1700-1750 CE)
  • Neoclassicism (1750-1830)
  • Romanticism (1780-1850)
  • Realism (1848-1900)
  • Impressionism (1860-1890)
  • Post-Impressionism (1880s-1890s)
  • Symbolism (1890s)
  • Art Nouveau (1890s-1914)
  • The Prairie Style (1900-1930s)
  • Fauvism (1905-1908)
  • Expressionism (1905-1925)
  • Cubism (1907-1930s)
  • Constructivism (1914-1920s)
  • Dada (1915-1922)
  • DeStijl (1917-1930s)
  • The International Style (1920s-1930s)
  • The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)
  • Mexican Muralists (1920s-1930s)
  • Surrealism (1920-1960)
  • Abstract Expressionism/The New York School (1940s-1950s)
  • Pop Art (1950-1980)
  • Color Field Painting (1960s)
  • Happenings (1960s)
  • Site Art (1970s-1990s)
• Rococo (1700-1750 CE)


  • Rococo art, which emerged in Europe between 1700 and 1750 CE, was characterized by its ornate and decorative style
  • Techniques and processes used in Rococo art included delicate brushwork, pastel colors, and asymmetrical compositions
  • Audience was primarily the aristocracy and wealthy bourgeoisie, who commissioned works for their homes and palaces
  • Interpretations vary, but it is often seen as a reflection of the hedonistic and pleasure-seeking culture of the time
  • Purpose was to create a sense of luxury and opulence, and to showcase the wealth and status of the patrons who commissioned the works
• Neoclassicism (1750-1830)


  • A revival of classical art and architecture, characterized by a focus on simplicity, order, and rationality
  • Techniques included drawing, painting, and sculpture
  • The audience was mainly the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie
  • The purpose was to promote the values of reason, order, and patriotism
• Romanticism (1780-1850)


  • An artistic and literary movement that emphasized emotion, imagination, and individualism
  • Techniques included painting, literature, and music
  • The audience was mainly the middle class
  • The purpose was to express personal feelings and emotions, and to critique society
• Realism (1848-1900)


  • An artistic movement that aimed to represent reality as it is, without idealization or exaggeration
  • Techniques included painting, sculpture, and photography
  • The audience was mainly the working class
  • The purpose was to expose social and political issues, and to promote social change
• Impressionism (1860-1890)


  • An artistic movement that aimed to capture the fleeting effects of light and color
  • Techniques included painting and drawing
  • The audience was mainly the middle class
  • The purpose was to capture the beauty of everyday life, and to challenge traditional art forms
• Post-Impressionism (1880s-1890s)


  • Emphasized the use of color and form to express emotions and ideas
  • Artists used techniques such as pointillism and bold brushstrokes to create a sense of movement and energy in their works
  • The purpose of Post-Impressionism was to move beyond the limitations of Impressionism and create a more personal and expressive form of art
• Symbolism (1890s)


  • Focused on the use of symbols and metaphors to convey deeper meanings and emotions
  • Artists used techniques such as exaggeration and distortion to create a dreamlike or mystical atmosphere in their works
  • The purpose of Symbolism was to explore the inner world of the human psyche and express the mysteries of the universe
• Art Nouveau (1890s-1914)


  • Emphasized the use of organic forms and decorative motifs inspired by nature
  • Artists used techniques such as curvilinear lines and asymmetrical shapes to create a sense of fluidity and movement in their works
  • The purpose of Art Nouveau was to create a new style that was both beautiful and functional, and to break away from the rigid forms of traditional art
• The Prairie Style (1900-1930s)


  • Emphasized the use of simple, geometric forms and natural materials such as wood and stone
  • Architects used techniques such as horizontal lines and open floor plans to create a sense of harmony and integration with the surrounding landscape
  • The purpose of the Prairie Style was to create a new form of architecture that was both functional and aesthetically pleasing, and to reflect the values of the American Midwest
• Fauvism (1905-1908)


  • Emphasized the use of bold, bright colors and simplified forms to create a sense of energy and emotion in their works
  • Artists used techniques such as thick brushstrokes and simplified shapes to create a sense of spontaneity and immediacy in their works
  • The purpose of Fauvism was to break away from the traditional forms of art and create a new form of expression that was both vibrant and emotional
• Expressionism (1905-1925)


  • An artistic movement that aimed to express subjective emotions and experiences
  • Techniques included painting, literature, and theater
  • The audience was mainly intellectuals and artists
  • The purpose was to challenge traditional art forms, and to express the anxieties and fears of modern life
• Cubism (1907-1930s)


  • Emphasized geometric shapes and multiple perspectives
  • Its purpose was to break away from traditional art and create a new visual language
  • The audience was primarily other artists and intellectuals
• Constructivism (1914-1920s)


  • Focused on the use of industrial materials and emphasized the importance of function over form
  • Its purpose was to create art that served a social purpose and could be used in everyday life
  • The audience was the working class and the goal was to inspire social change
• Dada (1915-1922)


  • Rejected traditional art and embraced absurdity and nonsense
  • Its purpose was to challenge societal norms and values
  • The audience was primarily other artists and intellectuals
• DeStijl (1917-1930s)


  • Emphasized simplicity and abstraction, using only primary colors and straight lines
  • Its purpose was to create a universal language of art that could be understood by all
  • The audience was artists and designers
• The International Style (1920s-1930s)


  • An architectural movement that emphasized functionality and minimalism
  • Its purpose was to create buildings that were efficient and could be mass-produced
  • The audience was architects and designers
• The Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)


  • A cultural movement that celebrated African American art, literature, and music
  • Its purpose was to challenge racial stereotypes and promote African American culture
  • The audience was primarily African Americans
• Mexican Muralists (1920s-1930s)


  • Used large-scale murals to promote social and political messages
  • Its purpose was to educate the public and inspire social change
  • The audience was the general public
• Surrealism (1920-1960)


  • An artistic movement that aimed to explore the subconscious mind and the irrational
  • Techniques included painting, sculpture, and literature
  • The audience was mainly intellectuals and artists
  • The purpose was to challenge rationality and conventional morality, and to explore the mysteries of the human psyche
• Abstract Expressionism/The New York School (1940s-1950s)

  • Used large canvases, gestural brushstrokes, and unconventional tools
  • The process of creating the artwork was as important as the final product
  • Audience was primarily other artists, critics, and collectors
  • Interpretations varied, with some seeing it as a reaction against formalism and others as a reflection of post-World War II anxiety
  • Purpose was to create a new form of art free from traditional constraints and express innermost emotions and ideas
• Pop Art (1950-1980)


  • An artistic movement that celebrated popular culture and consumerism
  • Techniques included painting, sculpture, and graphic design
  • The audience was mainly the middle class
  • The purpose was to critique mass media and consumer culture, and to blur the boundaries between high and low art
• Color Field Painting (1960s)


  • Abstract painting style using large areas of flat color to create depth
  • Paint applied in multiple layers
  • Primarily for art collectors and museums
  • Reaction against gestural brushwork of Abstract Expressionism
  • Goal was to create an immersive experience for the viewer
• Happenings (1960s)


  • Performance art that was spontaneous and unscripted
  • Included music, dance, and multimedia elements
  • Aimed at young, countercultural crowds
  • Meant to break down boundaries between art and life
  • Goal was to create a sense of community and shared experience
• Site Art (1970s-1990s)


  • Art movement that created site-specific works
  • Techniques included sculpture, installation, and environmental art
  • Audience was often the general public in public spaces
  • Goal was to engage with the environment and challenge traditional notions of art
  • Aimed to create a sense of place and dialogue between art and the natural world
• Garden-like setting


  • Atmospheric perspective
  • Puffy clouds
  • Rich vegetation
  • Abundant flowers
  • Sinuous curves
• Commissioned by an unnamed "gentleman of the Court:" a painting of his young mistress on a swing; in an early version, a bishop is pushing the swing with the gentleman admiring his mistress's legs from below