BIO final study

• Anatomy


  The study of structure
• Physiology


  The study of the function of the body parts
• Macroscopic Anatomy (Gross anatomy)


  Large structures, easily observable without aid; often observed via dissection
• Microscopic Anatomy


  Very small, structures that can't be observed without aid
• Types of microscopic anatomy


  • Cytology – study of cells
  • Histology – study of tissues
• Body systems

  • Integumentary System - Composed of skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands
  • Skeletal System - Composed of bones, cartilage, ligaments
  • Muscular System - Functions to produce heat, movement, and maintain posture
  • Nervous System - Functions to respond to internal and external change
  • Lymphatic System - Composed of Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils
• Negative Feedback Loop


  The resulting action will always be in the opposite direction of the stimulus
• Positive Feedback Loop


  The stimulus is reinforced to continue in the same direction until a climactic event occurs
• Subatomic particles that make up an atom

  • Neutron: particles with no electrical charge, in nucleus
  • Proton: positively charged particle; found in nucleus
  • Electrons: found in orbital shell, no weight
• Atomic number


  Number of protons
• Atomic mass

  Number of protons + number of neutrons
• Major types of bonds

  • Ionic
  • Covalent
  • Hydrogen
• Ionic bonds


  Formed when an atom donates/receives an electron; thus becoming an ion
• Covalent bonds


  Formed when atoms SHARE electrons
• Electronegativity


  Relative attraction each atom has for electrons
• Polarity


  Nonpolar Bonds – electron is shared equally

  Polar Bonds – electron shared unequally; one atom "hogs" electron and this creates slightly charged ends
• Hydrogen bond


  Occurs BETWEEN two different polar (slightly charged) molecules
• Functions of lipids


  • Stored energy
  • Components of cellular membranes
  • Hormones
• Primary classes of lipids


  • Triglycerides (neutral fats)
  • Phospholipids
  • Steroids
• Phospholipids


  Major component of cell membrane
• Types of carbohydrates


  • Monosaccharides - The least complex carbohydrates are simple sugar monomers. Glucose the most common, also fructose and galactose

  Disaccharides - Carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides; e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose

  Polysaccharides - Carbohydrates formed from with many monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, cellulose
• Kinetic Energy


  Energy of motion
• Potential Energy


  Stored energy
• Chemical energy


  Potential energy stored in chemical bonds that can be released during a chemical reaction
• ATP


  Powers nearly all forms of cellular work, produced from the breakdown of glucose in cell respiration
• Exergonic Reactions


  Energy is released. "Downhill reactions"
• Endergonic Reactions


  Energy is required
• Cellular respiration


  Glycolysis - Cytosol, no oxygen, starts with glucose, ends with 2 pyruvate, produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH

  Intermediate stage - Mitochondria, requires oxygen, starts with pyruvate, ends with acetyl CoA, produces 2 NADH

  Citric Acid Cycle - Mitochondria, requires oxygen, starts with acetyl CoA, ends with 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH

  Electronic Transport chain - Mitochondria, requires oxygen, starts with NADH and FADH, ends with 34 ATP
• Cytology


  Study of the cell
• Major components of the cell

  • Plasma membrane
  • Nucleus
  • Cytoplasm
• Functions of the cell membrane


  • Physical barrier
  • Selective permeability
  • Electrochemical gradients
  • Communication
• Passive transport


  Does not require energy, moves along with concentration gradient (HIGH → LOW)
• Active transport


  Requires energy, moves against concentration gradient (LOW → HIGH)
• Diffusion


  Movement of substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
• Osmosis


  Involves water movement and NOT the movement of solutes
• Tonicity


  Hypotonic - Fewer solutes outside cell than inside cell

  Hypertonic - More solutes outside cell than inside cell

  Isotonic - Same number of solutes in intracellular & extracellular fluids
• Sodium Potassium pump


  Form of primary active transport, 1 ATP, 2 K+ ions in, and 3 Na2+ ions out
• Vesicular transport


  Moves bulk material via a vesicle – membrane-bound sac
• Phagocytosis


  Movement of solid material
• Pinocytosis


  Movement of fluid