Chapter 2

• Paradigm


  Scientists' shared assumptions about the phenomena they study; also, a set of research procedures
• Level of analysis


  The focus of study when examining a multilevel process or phenomenon, such as the individual-level or the group-level of analysis
• Group fallacy


  Explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the explanation on the individual-level processes within the group; ascribing psychological qualities, such as will, intentionality, and mind, to a group rather than to the individuals within the group
• Group mind/collective unconscious


  A hypothetical unifying mental force linking group members together; the fusion of individual consciousness or mind into a transcendent consciousness
• Reality of groups


  Lewin and Interactionism: B = f(P,E) The law of interactionism that states each person's behavioral, cognitive, and emotional reactions ("behavior"), B, are a function of his or her personal qualities, P, the social environment, E, and the interaction of these personal qualities with factors present in the social environment
• Multilevel perspective


  The view that recognizes that a complete explanation of group processes and phenomena requires multiple levels of analysis, including individual (micro), group (meso), and organizational or societal (macro) level
• Observation


  A measurement method that involves watching and recording the activities of individuals and groups
• Overt observation


  Openly watching and recording information with no attempt to conceal one's research purposes
• Covert observation


  Watching and recording information on the activities of individuals and groups without their knowledge
• Participant observation


  Watching and recording group activities as a member of the group or participant in the social process
• Hawthorne effect


  A change in behavior that occurs when individuals know they are being observed or studied
• Qualitative study


  A research procedure that collects and analyzes nonnumeric, unquantified types of data, such as verbal descriptions, text, images, or objects
• Structured observational methods


  Research procedures that create a systematic record of group interaction and activities by classifying (coding) each overt expression or action into a defined category
• Quantitative study


  A research procedure that collects and analyzes numeric data, such as frequencies, proportions, or amounts
• Interaction process analysis (IPA)


  A structured coding system used to measure group activity by classifying each observed behavior into one of 12 categories, such as "shows solidarity" or "asks for orientation" (developed by Robert F. Bales)
• Systematic multi level observation of groups


  A theoretical and structured coding system for recording the activities of a group and the overall behavioral orientation of members (developed by Robert F. Bales)
• Reliability of observation


  The degree to which a measurement technique consistently yields the same conclusion at different times. For measurement techniques with two or more components, reliability is also the degree to which these components yield similar conclusions
• Interrater reliability


  The degree to which two or more raters agree
• Validity


  The degree to which a measurement method assesses what it was designed to measure
• Self-report measures


  Assessment methods, such as questionnaires, tests, or interviews, that ask respondents to describe their feelings, attitudes, or beliefs
• Sociometry


  A method for measuring the relationships among members of a group and summarizing those relationships graphically (developed by Jacob Moreno)
• Sociogram


  A graphic representation of the patterns of intermember relations created through sociometry. In most cases, each member of the group is depicted by a symbol, such as a lettered circle or square, and relations among members (e.g., communication links and friendship pairings) are indicated by lines from one member to another
• Social network analysis


  A set of procedures for studying the relational structure of groups and networks mathematically and graphically. Using information about the relationships (ties, edges) linking members (nodes, vertices), the method yields member-level indexes (e.g., centrality and betweenness), group-level indexes (e.g., density and cohesiveness), and a graphic representation of the unit
• Reliability and validity of self-report measures


  Conflict of bias, Unwillingness to disclose their personal attitudes, feelings and perceptions
• So long as researchers observe people in public places, and the things people are doing in those places do not expose them to "risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects' financial standing, employability, or reputation," then such research is considered ethically permissible (Office for Human Research Protections, 2009)
• Case study


  A research technique that draws on multiple sources of information to examine, in depth, the activities and dynamics of a group or groups
• Bona fide groups


  Naturally occurring groups, such as audiences, boards of directors, clubs, or teams, compared to ad hoc groups created for research purposes
• Correlational studies


  A research design in which the investigator measures (but does not manipulate) at least two variables and then uses statistical procedures to examine the strength and direction of the relationship between these variables
• Experimental studies


  A research design in which the investigator (1) manipulates at least one variable by randomly assigning participants to two or more different conditions, (2) measures at least one other variable, and (3) controls the influence of other variables on the outcome
• Institutional reviews boards


  A group, usually located at a university or other research institution, that reviews research procedures to make certain that they are consistent with ethical guidelines for protecting human participants
• Motivation


  Wants, needs, and other psychological processes that energize behavior and thereby determine its form, intensity, and duration
• Hierarchy of needs


  An ordering of needs from the most basic and biologically necessary to the more social and psychological needs, such as aesthetic and actualization needs (developed by Abraham Maslow)
• Behaviorism

  A theoretical explanation of the way organisms acquire new responses to environmental stimuli through conditioning (learning)
• Social exchange theory


  An economic model of interpersonal relationships that assumes individuals seek out relationships that offer them many rewards while exacting few costs
• Systems theory


  A general theoretical approach that assumes that complex phenomena are the result of the constant and dynamic adjustments that occur between and among the interdependent parts of the whole. Applied to groups, systems theory assumes that groups are open systems that maintain dynamic equilibrium among members through a complex series of interrelated adjustments and processes
• Input–process–output (I–P–O) model


  Any one of a number of general conceptual analyses of groups that assumes raw materials (inputs) are transformed by internal system processes to generate results (output). For example, an I–P–O model of group performance assumes that group-level processes mediate the relationship between individual, group, and situational input variables and resulting performance outcomes
• Cognitive processes


  Mental processes that acquire, organize, and integrate information including memory systems that store data and the psychological mechanisms that process this information
• Self-reference effect


  The tendency for people to have better memories for actions and events that they are personally connected to in some way
• Group-reference effect

  The tendency for group members to have better memories for actions and events that are related, in some way, to their group
• Blascovich's (2014) threat/challenge model, study the relationship between physiological mechanisms and group behavior