WEEK 14: Excretory System

    Cards (42)

    • Urinary system
      Consists of the paired kidneys and ureters, the bladder, and the urethra
    • Primary role of the urinary system
      To ensure optimal properties of the blood
    • General role of the kidneys
      • Water and electrolyte regulation; acid-base balance
      • Excretion of metabolic wastes, excess water, and electrolytes in urine
      • Excretion of bioactive substances (e.g. drugs)
      • Secretion of renin, a protease important for regulation of blood pressure
      • Secretion of erythropoietin, stimulating RBC production in red marrow
      • Conversion of vitamin D to the active form 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or calcitriol
      • Gluconeogenesis during fasting state
    • Kidney
      • Kidney-bean shaped
      • With thick outer cortex, surrounding a medulla that is divided into 8-12 renal pyramids; all of these comprise the renal lobe
      • The apical papilla of each renal pyramid inserts into a minor calyx, a subdivision of two or three major calyces extending from the renal pelvis
      • The ureter carries urine from the renal pelvis and exits the renal hilum, where the renal artery and vein are also located
    • Nephrons
      • Functional units of the kidneys
      • Around 4-5 million each kidney
    • Major divisions of the nephron
      • Renal corpuscle
      • Proximal convoluted tubule
      • Loop of Henle
      • Distal convoluted tubule
      • Collecting ducts
    • Renal function
      • Filtration - water and solutes in the blood leave the vascular space and enter the lumen of the nephron
      • Tubular reabsorption - substances move from the tubular lumen across the epithelium into the interstitium and surrounding capillaries
      • Tubular secretion - substances move from epithelial cells of the tubules into the lumens, usually after uptake from the surrounding interstitium and capillaries
      • Excretion - filtrate receives various secreted molecules and then enters the minor calyces as urine
    • Renal corpuscle
      Comprises of glomerulus, a tuft of blood capillaries, surrounded by a double-walled epithelial capsule called the Bowman's capsule
    • Renal corpuscle
      • Inner visceral layer closely envelops the glomerular capillaries
      • Outer parietal layer forms the surface of the capsule
      • Vascular pole - where the afferent arteriole enters and the efferent arteriole leaves
      • Tubular pole - where the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) begins
    • Podocytes
      Apparatus for renal filtration
    • Pedicels
      Interdigitating processes covering the capillary surface
    • Filtration slits
      Spaces between pedicels
    • Slit diaphragms
      Bridges of slit pores, modified and specialized occluding or tight junctions composed of nephrins and other proteins important for renal function
    • Glomerular filtration barrier
      • Fenestrated capillary endothelium - blocks blood cells and platelets
      • Glomerular basement membrane (GBM) - restricts large proteins and some organic anions
      • Filtration slit diaphragms between pedicels - restrict some small proteins and organic anions
    • Mesangial cells
      Tissue macrophage of the kidney, have contractile properties and produce components of an external lamina
    • Functions of the mesangium
      • fills interstices between capillaries that lack podocytes
      • Physical support of capillaries within the glomerulus
      • Adjusted contractions in response to blood pressure changes
      • Phagocytosis of protein aggregates
      • Secretion of several cytokines, prostaglandins, and other factors important for immune defense and repair in the glomerulus
    • Proximal convoluted tubule
      • Simple cuboidal epithelium
      • Cells well-stained, with numerous mitochondria
      • Has numerous pits and vesicles near the bases of the microvilli, indicating active endocytosis and pinocytosis
      • Prominent basal folds and lateral interdigitations
      • With long microvilli that form a prominent brush border that facilitates reabsorption, giving the lumens a fuzz-filled appearance
    • Major functions of the proximal convoluted tubule
      • Reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, most water and electrolytes
      • Secretion of organic anions and cations, H+ , and NH4 in the peritubular capillaries
      • Hydroxylation of vitamin D
      • Production of erythropoietin
    • Thin ascending and thin descending limbs of the loop of Henle
      • Simple squamous epithelium
      • Few mitochondria
      • Lumen is prominent
    • Main functions of the thin limbs
      Passive reabsorption of Na+ and Cl–
    • The countercurrent flow of the filtrate (descending, then immediately ascending) establishes a gradient of osmolarity, maintaining the hyperosmotic interstitium
    • Thick ascending limbs of the loop of Henle
      • Simple cuboidal epithelium
      • No microvilli, but many mitochondria
    • Main functions of the thick ascending limbs
      Active reabsorption of various electrolytes
    • Distal convoluted tubule
      • Simple cuboidal epithelium
      • Cells smaller than in PCT
    • Proximal convoluted tubule
      • Secretion of organic anions and cations, H+, and NH4 in the peritubular capillaries
      • Hydroxylation of vitamin D
      • Production of erythropoietin
    • Loop of Henle
      • Passive reabsorption of Na+ and Cl–
      • The countercurrent flow of the filtrate (descending, then immediately ascending) establishes a gradient of osmolarity, maintaining the hyperosmotic interstitium
    • Thin ascending and thin descending limbs
      • Simple squamous epithelium
      • Few mitochondria
      • Lumen is prominent
    • Thick ascending limbs
      • Active reabsorption of various electrolytes
    • Distal convoluted tubule
      • Reabsorption of electrolytes
      • The rate of Na+ absorption is regulated by aldosterone
    • Juxtaglomerular apparatus
      • Utilizes feedback mechanisms to regulate glomerular blood flow and keep the rate of glomerular filtration relatively constant
      • JG cells produce renin
    • Macula densa
      • Thickened region where cells of the distal tubule become columnar
    • Juxtaglomerular granular (JG) cells
      • Region of cells adjacent to the macula densa where the tunica media of the afferent arteriole is modified to a secretory phenotype, including granules with the protease renin
    • Lacis cells

      • Extraglomerular mesangial cells adjacent to the macula densa, afferent arteriole, and efferent arteriole
    • Collecting ducts

      • Final site of water reabsorption from the filtrate
      • Connecting tubule extends from each nephron join together in the cortical medullary rays to form collecting ducts
      • These ducts merge further, forming larger and straighter collecting ducts with increasingly columnar cells, and will form papillary ducts, which deliver urine directly into the minor calyx
    • Principal cells

      • Regulated reabsorption of water & electrolytes
      • Regulated secretion of K+
      • Rich in aquaporins, the integral membrane pore proteins that function as specific channels for water molecules
    • Intercalated cells

      • Reabsorption of K+ (low-K+ diet)
      • Help maintain acid-base balance by secreting either H+ (from type A or α intercalated cells) or HCO3 – (from type B or β intercalated cells)
    • Ureters, bladder, and urethra
      • Urine is transported by the ureters from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder where it is stored until emptying by micturition via the urethra
      • Lined by the uniquely stratified urothelium or transitional epithelium
    • Ureters
      • Longitudinally folded mucosa, surrounded by a thick muscularis that moves urine by regular waves of peristalsis
      • The lamina propria is lined by transitional epithelium or urothelium
    • Urinary bladder
      • Umbrella cells are especially well developed
      • The thickness of the full bladder's urothelium is half that of the empty bladder (5-7 cell layers vs. 2-3 layers)
      • Urothelium is surrounded by a folded lamina propria and submucosa, followed by a dense sheath of interwoven smooth muscle layers and adventitia
      • The muscularis consists of three poorly delineated layers, collectively called the detrusor muscle, which contract to empty the bladder
    • Urethra
      • Mucosa has large longitudinal folds around the lumen
      • Varies between stratified columnar in some areas and pseudostratified columnar elsewhere, but it becomes stratified squamous at the distal end of the urethra