observations

• naturalistic observation


  observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur
• evaluation of naturalistic

  • able to observe behavior in its own setting, has greater ecological validity. 
  • often conducted on a small scale and may lack a representative sample , may result in the findings lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society.
  • less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for replication
  • researcher needs to be trained to be able to recognise aspects of a situation that are psychologically significant
  • don't have manipulations of variables which means cause and effect relationships cannot be established.
• controlled observation 


   observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting
• evaluation of controlled observation


  • can be easily replicated by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.
  • The data obtained is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e. numerical) - less time consuming method compared to naturalistic observations. 
  • fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being representative ,generalized to a large population.. 
  • can lack validity due to the demand characteristics
• overt observation 


  Also known as a disclosed observation as the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed
• evaluation of overt observation


  • Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware
  • If observed for long periods of time, people tend to forget about observers and behave more naturally, particularly when being filmed.
  • Increase of social desirability as they are aware of being observed, they may change their behaviour in a way that they feel is favourable to others, which decreases validity.
  • Increase chance of demand characteristics, as the participant is aware of the researcher, they may change their behaviour in order to fit in with what they think the researcher wants to see.
• covert observation


  Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed
• evaluation of covert observation


  • Increases validity as participants aren’t aware , they are more likely to act naturally.
  • Less demand characteristics as the participant isn’t aware of the researcher, there would be less chance of them changing their behaviour to fit in with the researchers expectations.
  • It creates ethical issues as the participant has not consented to being observed. This makes it difficult to follow other ethics such as right to withdraw, debrief etc.
• participant observation


   Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing.
• evaluation of participant observation


  • Only way to observe some behaviours
  • Greater accuracy + detail as researcher is involved in the behaviour. allows them to make more valid conclusions about behaviour as they have greater insight and perspective
  • If researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become biased. they could selectively report information -reducing the validity of their data.
  • The presence of the researcher can influence behaviour, reducing validity
• non-participant observation 


  Observation study where the researcher does not join the group or take part in the situation they are observing.
• evaluation: non-participant 


  • Easier to remain objective as the observer – increasing validity.
  • researcher has less influence on behaviour - chances of researcher effect are reduced.
  • If participants are unaware that they are being observed as part of a non-participant observation, it can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw.
  • Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants, therefore, some behaviours may be interpreted or recorded inaccurately – reducing validity.
• structured non-participant 


  • observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour. This produces quantitative data
• evaluation: trusted non-participant


  • Easier to record as there is specific focus on behaviours. increases the validity, researcher not distracted by behaviours that may be irrelevant
  • Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus, behaviours missed due to it not being part of the planned behaviours.
  • observer bias as the researcher may interpret behaviours in a way that fits into the planned behavioural categories, reducing validity as it may not reflect what happened.
• unstructured non-participant 


  • Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible (often produces qualitative data)
• evaluation : unstructured non-participant 


  • Increases validity: researcher is taking into account all behaviours ensures valid conclusions made
  • Applicable to a wide range of contexts. method is extremely easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour.
  • Harder to record as the researcher has to pay attention to everything around them, this may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity.
  • Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find.
• event sampling 


  A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
• evaluation: event sampling 


  • Records easy to obtain + analyse as researchers. makes analysis quick and easy, especially when looking for most or least common behaviours.
  • reliable observations as the events are already planned, easily replicated to measure consistency of observational behaviours.
  • Can miss important behaviours due to having set events already planned – reducing validity.
  • If many events occur at once it may lead to behaviours not being recorded – reducing validity.
• time sampling


  A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals.
• evaluation: time sampling 


  • Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate.
  • It can give an indication of how much time is spent on each behaviour.
  • Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for, therefore may reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed.
  • Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
  • Can miss events not coded for – reducing validity
• behavioural categories 


  Behavioural categories contain a list of key behaviours, or collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record.
• coding frame 


  • Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed within a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different subtype within a category.
• to increase validity of observations 


  • Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect)
  • Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
  • Clearly operationalised coding system.
• to increase reliability of observations


  • Clearly operationalised coding system
  • Check inter-rater reliability
  • Train researchers to use coding system to ensure there is a consistent understanding of the behavioural categories
  • Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories