Evaluate

• Differential association theory


  Explanation for criminal behaviour that considers social factors rather than just individual factors
• Differential association theory evidence


  • Osborn and West (1979) - 40% of sons with criminal fathers committed crime by 18 vs 13% of sons with non-criminal fathers
  • Farrington (2002) - If one relative was arrested, high chance another relative was also arrested, especially if the father was arrested
• Differential association theory


  Cannot determine if socialisation causes criminal behaviour or if criminality is inherited
• Raine (1993) - 52% concordance for MZ twins vs 21% for DZ twins, suggesting genetic component to criminality
• Differential association theory does not consider other factors like biological/nature element of nature vs nurture
• Diathesis-stress model


  Genetic vulnerability may predispose individuals to deviant behaviour, but social environment triggers it during socialisation
• Anthony Glassford Powell case


  • Reduced hippocampus volume, ADHD, sexual assault, deprived upbringing
• Gender socialisation


  Process of learning mores, norms and values customary for the culture and society
• Chivalry hypothesis


  Police, magistrates and judges tend to act in a more chivalrous manner towards women, leading to lower arrest/conviction rates
• Carlen (1997) - Women perceived as good mothers less likely to be imprisoned than those with children in care system
• Males committing violent/severe crimes often get let off comparatively lightly, while females punished more harshly for going against gender roles
• Testosterone


  Hormone linked to aggressive behaviour, higher levels found in violent offenders
• Oestradiol


  Hormone thought to promote empathy, lower levels in many criminals
• Diathesis-stress approach - Genetics 'loads the gun', environment 'pulls the trigger' for criminal behaviour