Sci A & B

• Stages involving Mountain Formation

  1. Orogeny

  2. Orogens/Orogenic belts

  3. Orogenesis
• Orogeny


  The result of tectonic plate movements
• Orogens/Orogenic belts


  Deformed rocks formed during orogenesis as the continental plate crumples and pushes upwards, which will result to a landmass called mountain
• Orogenesis


  Explains that the mountains are built by internal processes through geologic time
• These may be triggered by geothermal heat generated by radioactive decay in earth's interior
• Mountain


  A location with significantly higher elevation than the surrounding area
• Mountain


  A large and elevated landform formed by tectonic force or volcanism
• Mountain


  Distinguished by steeply sloping sides and sharp or slightly rounded ridges and peaks
• Primary features of a mountain


  • Top or summit
  • Slope or side
  • Very steep valley between young mountains known as gorge
• Geomorphology


  The scientific study of mountains
• Stage 1 - Accumulation of Sediments


  1. Igneous rocks and sediments from mountain belts, the accumulated layers can be hundreds of kilometers thick and come from by nearby landmasses

  2. The particles that are released from rocks and sediments are then transported to the edge of the continental crust by weathering and erosion

  3. Then these elements lithify becomes limestones, sandstorms, and shales that make up the continental shelves, slopes and rises
• Stage 2 - Orogenic Period of Rock Deformation and Crustal Uplift


  The accumulated sediments are deformed by compressional forces caused by tectonic plate collision
• 3 Types of Tectonic Convergence


  • Arc-Continental
  • Oceanic-Continental
  • Continental-Continental
• Arc-Continental


  The island arc collides with the edges of a continental plate causing the sediments associated with the arc to adhere to the continent margin over time
• Oceanic-Continental


  The collision of the ocean and continental plates allows for the accretion of marine sedimentary deposits to the continental edge
• Continental-Continental


  The ocean basin closes, and the 2 continental plates collide
• Appalachian, Himalayas, and the Urals are formed through Continental-Continental mountain building
• Stage 3 - Period of Crustal Uplift Caused by Isostatic Rebound and Block Faulting


  1. The crustal uplift due to isostatic rebound and block faulting

  2. Isostatic rebound is exhibited when the crust bends the lithosphere into the asthenosphere causing the lower layer to flow out of the way

  3. The crust will then sink until it reaches its buoyancy point

  4. Through the erosional force the surface materials are removed, and weight of the crust becomes less, thus the continental crust makes an isostatic adjustment causing it to float higher into the mantle

  5. This stage also causes block-faulting, in which the tensional force exists in a horizontal direction and breaks the continental crust into pieces of smaller blocks

  6. Each fault block moves vertically and in different orientation and elevation to compensate for the tensional force and eventually produce normal and graben faults
• Mountain Range


  A succession of many closely spaced mountains covering a particular portion of the Earth
• Mountain Range


  • Consist of several valleys and river channels formed by water rushing down from melting glaciers
  • Typically located either in the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt
  • Composed of several peaks and each peak has its own physical feature
  • Share a property of high altitude and hold a vast amount of water in their areas
• Pacific Ring of Fire


  Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt - a horse-shoe shaped region in the Pacific Ocean basin that is characterized by a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
• Alpide Belt


  A mountain range that is being created by the ongoing collision of plate tectonics between the northward moving African, Arabian and Indian plates and the Eurasian plates
• Mountain belts


  Several mountain ranges that runs roughly parallel to each other
• Some of the famous mountain ranges

  • Himalayas
  • Andes
  • Appalachian
  • Alps
  • Rocky Mountain
  • Great Dividing Range
• Himalayas


  • Highest and youngest mountain range in the world
  • Origin dates back to Jurassic Era, which is about 80 million years ago
  • The name "Himalaya" – comes from the Sanskrit language and means "house of snow" or "snowy range"
  • It is the home of the world's highest peak including Mt. Everest
  • Records an elevation of about 1000 ft (305 m)
  • Many peaks of Himalayas are regarded sacred in Buddhism and Hinduism
• Andes


  • Longest mountain range in the world
  • Has a distance of 4,500 miles Andean peaks rise over 20,000 feet (6096 m) thus only Himalayas and Hindu Kush are higher than Andes
  • Divided into 3 sections: Central Andes, Southern Andes, Northern Andes
  • Is a region for earthquake belts and active volcanoes found in four volcanic zone
• Appalachian


  • The oldest mountain range in North America
  • The primary mountain system of the Eastern Northern American
  • Stretches southwestward for about 1500 miles from Quebec Canada to Central Alabama in US
  • Mount Mitchell, North Carolina - highest peak standing at 6,684 feet
• Alps


  • The largest mountain system in Europe
  • Extends from southeastern France and northern Italy
  • The towering peaks, which is approximately 8000 feet and covered with ice and snow
  • Considered as the most magnificent natural sight in the continent
  • Alpinism or mountaineering is believed to have originated in the Alps
  • Mont Blanc, France - the highest mountain in this mountain range towering at 15,782 feet above sea level
• Rocky Mountain


  • Mountain range in Western North America
  • Informally known as "Rockies"
  • Group of jagged, snow-capped peaks that runs through the western part of Northern America
  • Includes all uplands and mountains of New Mexico, British Columbia and North Alberta in Canada and US
  • The approximate length of this range is 6,035 km
  • Mount Elbert - highest peak which stands at 4,401 m
• Great Dividing Range


  • Also called Eastern Highlands
  • Australia's most substantial mountain range and the third longest land-based in the world
  • Mountain range that forms a watershed
  • Stretches more than 3,500 km from Dauan Island off the northwestern tip of Queensland
  • Serves as a settlement to Australian aboriginal tribes
  • Mount Kosciuszko - Australia's highest peak which rises to a height of 2230 km above sea level
• Telescope


  • An optical device that has the ability to make faraway objects appear much closer
  • Consists of an objective lens (in refractors) and primary mirror (in reflectors)
  • Its ability to collect light is directly related to the diameter of the lens or mirror (aperture - used to gather light)
  • In general, the larger the aperture, the more light the aperture collects and brings to focus, the brighter the final image would be
  • The telescope magnification depends on the combination of the lenses used the aperture is more important feature of the telescope than magnification
• Binocular telescope or binoculars


  • Composed of two identical mirrors mounted side by side and aligned to point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes when viewing distant objects
  • The design of the binoculars takes more than twice long as telescope to evolve because of the following design consideration and requirements: two telescopes for magnifying distant objects, matched magnification of the two telescopes, erect images, handheld, individually focusable but preferably jointly focusable, parallel optical axes of the two telescopes, adjustable interpupillary separation
• Three Main Parts of a Binocular's Optical System


  • Objective Lens assembly
  • Eyepiece lens assembly
  • Image orientation correction
• Objective Lens assembly


  The lens assembly at the "big end" of the binoculars, its function is to gather light from the object and to form an image at the image plane
• Eyepiece lens assembly


  Its function is to examine the image at the image plane, the focusing mechanism of the binoculars lets you move either the eyepiece assemblies or intermediate "transfer" lens so that the eyepiece can focus on the image formed by the objective lenses
• Image orientation correction


  Usually a prism assembly in modern binoculars, without this, the image would be inverted and laterally reversed, in large binoculars, the prism assembly may also enable the eyepiece to be a 45 to 90 degrees to the main optical tube
• Classification of Binoculars (according to type of prism)

  • Porro-prism binoculars
  • Roof prism binoculars
• Porro-prism binoculars


  Have objective lens tubes that are offset from the eyepieces; the prisms angle from the eyepieces to the objective lenses
• Roof prism binoculars


  Have two straight tubes, making them smaller and more compact
• Magnetism


  A force generated in matter by the motion of electrons within its atoms