Criminology Unit 2

• Crime


  An action or omission which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law
• Deviance


  The fact or state of diverging from usual or accepted standards, especially in social or sexual behaviour
• Crime is a social construct
• Social norms and values determine what is deviant and influence our laws to define crime
• Social norms and values change over time and are different in each country
• The acts or behaviours that are considered to be deviant and/or criminal also change over time, from place to place and are dependent on context and the characteristics of the people involved
• Functionalism


  Crime is inevitable and has positive functions
• Functionalism


  • Boundary Maintenance reaffirms what is right and wrong by making an example of those who break the law
  • Social change: For society to progress, existing norms and values must be challenged. This occurs via functional rebels that act in deviant ways to encourage changes in laws etc.
  • Social cohesion: After any horrific crime, often society pulls together as a community which reinforces the sense of belonging and social cohesion
• Strain Theory


  Certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of crime. These strains lead to negative emotions, such as frustration and anger, which create pressure for corrective action, and crime is one possible response
• Merton's Strain Theory


  • Structural factors: society's unequal opportunities structure
  • Cultural Factors: the strong emphasis on success goals and the weaker emphasis on using legitimate means to achieve them
• Merton's 5 responses to anomie


  • Conformity
  • Innovation
  • Ritualism
  • Retreatism
  • Rebellion
• Marxism


  There are two classes in society that are in conflict: the rich, upper class-Bourgeoisie and the working class - proletariat
• Marxism


  • Criminogenic Capitalism: capitalism encourages us to value material goods, those that cannot afford these consumer goods turn to crime to obtain them
  • The proletariat are kept on low wages by the Bourgeoisie causing some to have to commit crime to survive
  • Capitalism promotes greed, which explains white collar/corporate crime
  • The proletariat feel alienated and frustrated with their position in society and turn to non-utilitarian crime to act out their frustrations, e.g. vandalism and violence
  • The role of the state & law making: Laws are made by the bourgeoisie and therefore protect the bourgeoisie. Laws are enforced differently, with penalties being more lenient for working class crime compared with white collar crime. This gives the impression that crime is a working-class problem (Selective Enforcement)
• Right Realism

  Causes of crime: Rational Choice, Inadequate socialisation, Biological differences
• Right Realism


  • Solutions: Zero tolerance policing & Target Hardening
• Left Realism

  Causes of crime: Marginalisation, Relative deprivation, Subcultures
• Left Realism


  • Solutions: Multi-agency approach to policing & tackling structural causes
• Interactionism (Labelling Theory)


  The act done by the person was not deviant, rather that the labelling caused it to be viewed as such
• Interactionism (Labelling Theory)


  • Primary deviance (acts that have not been labelled as deviant) and secondary deviance (results from labelling-once someone has been labelled deviant further deviance is likely)
  • Once an individual is labelled as a criminal, they internalise the label and it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy-they live up to this label
  • Media contribute by demonising labelled groups-moral panic, deviancy amplification and stereotypes
  • Cicourel argues that justice is negotiated-when a middle-class youth was arrested, he was less likely to be charged because he did not fit the police's idea of the 'typical' delinquent
  • Braithwaite's Reintegrative shaming vs Disintegrative shaming
• Eysenck's Personality Theory


  Certain personality types are more likely to commit crime. Extrovert, neurotic and psychotic personalities are more likely to offend because it is difficult for them to learn to control their immature impulses
• Psychodynamic Theory (Freud)


  Our early childhood experiences determine our personality and future behaviour. The mind has 3 parts: Id (controls our selfish urges), Ego (seeks rational and sensible control), Super ego (our moral conscience). A healthy personality needs a balance between all 3 parts.
• Biological theories of crime are based on the idea that criminal behaviour is biologically determined
• Social learning theories are based on the idea that criminal behaviour is learned
• Criminal behaviour is learned through associations with others, particularly peers and family
• The more positive associations one has with criminal behaviour, the more likely they are to engage in criminal behaviour
• Behaviour that is positively reinforced is more likely to be repeated
• Behaviour resulting in an undesirable outcome is less likely to be repeated
• The cause of someone's behaviour is the enforcement and punishments that help shape it
• Aggressive behaviour can be learned from watching others behave in an aggressive manner
• Whether people imitate observed behaviour depends on the consequences they have observed for the model
• Evaluation of Sociological Theories

  • Functionalism: Durkheim argues that a certain amount of crime/deviance is healthy for society - but does not indicate how much is the right amount
  • Marxism: Ignores other non-class inequalities such as gender or ethnicity
  • Left Realism: The theory is too soft on the criminal as it doesn't explain how the criminals should be dealt with
  • Right Realism: They are overly concerned with street crime and ignore corporate or white-collar crimes which may be more costly and harmful to society
  • Interactionism: It tends to be deterministic, not everyone accepts their labels
  • Strain Theory: Only really explains economic crime, it doesn't really explain violent crime
• Evaluation of Individualistic Theories


  • Psychodynamic: It can be very difficult to prove or disprove. Freud said criminality is part of the unconscious mind
  • Biological Theories: Some argue that the XYY chromosome theory is flawed and that there is no clear link between biology and crime
• Biological Balance of Good Health Model


  Policy influenced by biological theories
• Individualistic


  Policy influenced by individualistic theories
• Sociological


  Policy influenced by sociological theories
• There are various attitudes, events and policies impacting upon a range of social issues
• Homosexuality

  • Alan Turing, Section 28, Wollenden Report, Sexual Offences Act, Marriage Act 2014
• Institutional Racism


  • Race Relations Act, the murder of Stephen Lawrence, Macpherson Report
• Smoking


  • Ban of Smoking Television adverts, Health Act, Smoking ban, Menthol Smoking Ban
• Domestic Violence


  • Wife Beating Curlew, Crime and Victims Act, Serious Crime Act