Explanations for forgetting

• Explanations for forgetting: Interference

  Interference = forgetting because 1 memory blocks another, causing 1 or both memories to be distorted or forgotten. Interference between memories makes it harder to locate them - forgetting.
• Proactive Interference = old memory interferes with a new memory. We forget the old memory.
• Retroactive Interference = new memory interferes with old memory. We forget old memory.
• Effects of Similarity: McGeoch + McDonald -

  • Studied retroactive interference pps learnt a list of 10 words. Recall till 100% accuracy. Pps then learned a second list which was different for each group:

  1. synonyms
  2. antonyms
  3. words unrelated to list A
  4. nonsense syllables
  5. 3 digit numbers
  6. List 1 repeated

  McGeoch & McDonald concluded that interference is greater when there are more similarities between memories.
• AO3 Interference Theory -

  • 1000's of lab studies for both types of interference, high control, standardised which increases internal validity & demonstrates cause & effect.
  • Lacks ecological validity & mundane realism
  • Machine reductionism as it explains why we forget through cognitions but not due to other factors such as environment e.g. trauma so does not full explain forgetting. Inadequate explanation
• Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval Failure -

  • People forget due to insufficient cues, when info in initially placed in memory, there are cues that are associated with that memory at the time e.g. place - context cue. Absence of cues at the time of recall causes retrieval failure as the memories are there but inaccessible.
• Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (1973) -

  • Cues that are present during the time of encoding must be present at retrieval.
  • "the greater the similarity between the encoding event and the retrieval event, the greater the likelihood or recalling the original memory"
• Cue-dependent forgetting -

  Context-dependent: external cues in the environment e.g. smell, place etc.

  State-dependent forgetting: bodily cues inside of us, our internal e.g. heartrate, emotional, mood, drunk etc.
• Godden + Baddeley (Context) (1975) -

  Divers learnt lists of words & recalled 4 conditions:

  • Learn on land - Recall on land
  • Learn on land - Recall underwater
  • Learn underwater - Recall underwater
  • Learn underwater - Recall on land

  Recall 40% lower in non-matching conditions as they lacked environmental cues that were present during original learning.
• Carter + Cassidy (State) (1998) -

  Pps learned a list of words & recalled. Drugs used were anti-histamine (treats hay fever) mild sedative effect leads to drowsiness which creates a different physiological state. 4 conditions:

  • Learn on drugs - Recall on it
  • Learn on drugs - Recall when not on it
  • Learn not on drugs - Recall when not on it
  • Learn drugs - Recall on it

  In the mismatch conditions recall was significantly worse as the internal cues were absent at the time of encoding.
• AO3 Retrieval Failure -

  • RS Godden + Baddeley. RS Carter + Cassidy
  • Criticism, Baddeley argued context effects aren't that strong irl & context would have to be extremely different like in the scuba-diver study but learning in one room & recalling in another won't lead to much forgetting as the environment isn't that different. Research lacks mundane realism & doesn't explain real-life forgetting.
• AO3 Retrieval Failure -

  • RLA, helpful for forensics & police officers as it helps facilitate better EWT and eye witnesses may be taken back to the crime scene to help trigger cues that may have been present during encoding. Useful outside a psychology lab and has RLA.
• Retrieval Failure?

  • Forgetting is due to the absence of cues.
  • Lack of external contextual cues – where environment for learning and recall is different (e.g. different room)
  • Lack of internal contextual cues – where physical state for learning and recall is different (e.g. mood)
• Interference -

  • when two memories conflict/confuse/become mixed up with each other
  • more likely when material is similar (creates response competition)
  • proactive interference – when an older memory disrupts a newer memory
  • retroactive interference – when a newer memory disrupts an older memory
• Retrieval Failure AO3 -

  • use of evidence, e.g. Godden and Baddeley suggests that retrieval failure/absence of cues is a valid explanation of forgetting
  • application of explanation, e.g. improving memory using mnemonics, category headings
  • context has to be very different in real-life to have any effect
  • context effect only occurs when memory is tested in particular ways – free recall vs recognition
• Interference Theory AO3 -

  • use of evidence from lab studies, eg McGeoch and McDonald and real-life, eg Schmidt supports the effects of interference
  • application of explanation, e.g. avoiding similar material when revising for exams
  • use of artificial materials in lab studies, e.g. recall of word lists
• Retroactive Interference = when new/recently stored information disrupts/affects the recall of old/previously stored information, more likely if competing information is similar.
• Retrieval Failure -

  • forgetting is due to the absence of cues/tip-of-the-tongue forgetting
  • lack of external contextual cues – where environment for learning and recall is different (e.g. different room)
  • lack of internal contextual cues – where physical state for learning and recall is different (e.g. mood)
  • Tulving's encoding specificity principle (1973)
  • description of relevant evidence, e.g. Godden and Baddeley, Carter and Cassidy
• Interference -

  • when two memories conflict/confuse/become mixed up with each other
  • more likely when material is similar = response competition
  • proactive interference – when an older memory disrupts a newer memory
  • retroactive interference – when a newer memory disrupts an older memory
  • description of relevant evidence, e.g. Baddeley and Hitch - rugby players study, the more games they played the less they remembered.
• AO3 Retrieval Failure -

  • use of evidence to support or contradict, e.g. Godden and Baddeley, Carter and Cassidy suggests that retrieval failure/absence of cues is a valid explanation of forgetting
  • application of explanation, e.g. improving memory using mnemonics, category headings, cognitive interview
  • context has to be very different in real-life to have any effect
• AO3 Interference -

  • use of evidence from lab studies, McGeoch and McDonald
  • application of explanation, e.g. avoiding similar material when revising for exam.
  • use of artificial materials in lab studies, e.g. recall of word lists
  • deliberate attempt to induce interference in lab studies, e.g. by limiting time between learning and recall
  • evidence suggests interference can be overcome using cued recall