M2

• Social identity theory


  Individuals categorize themselves & others into social groups & get a sense of identity & self-esteem through group membership
• Social identity theory concepts


  • Social categorization
  • Social identification
  • Social comparison
• Relative deprivation theory


  Dissatisfaction with a part of your life which can be from comparing current or past situation or comparing yourself to others
• Relative deprivation theory concepts


  • Seeing other groups have more than you do
  • Placing the blame on another group, they are the reason we have less
  • Personal RD: you have less than you think you do
  • Group RD: I feel that my group has been deprived
• Realistic conflict theory


  Real conflict over real resources, ingroup vs outgroup competition for resources, maximize rewards, frustration for resources leads to aggression then conflict
• Intergroup threat theory


  Perceived threats between different social groups influence intergroup relations, attitudes, and behaviors, shaping interactions based on factors like competition, identity, and power dynamics
• Hate group membership


  Individuals or organizations harboring intense hostility towards specific social or ethnic groups, often promoting discriminatory ideologies and engaging in harmful actions against targeted communities
• Consequences of categorization


  • Influencing perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, and social interactions, often leading to the formation of stereotypes, biases, and in-group/out-group dynamics that can impact individual and group identities, as well as social cohesion and conflict within communities
• Origins of stereotypes


  Stereotypes originate from various sources such as socialization, cultural norms, personal experiences, and media representations, shaping perceptions and beliefs about certain social groups based on shared characteristics or attributes, which may be oversimplified or exaggerated
• Transmission of stereotypic beliefs


  Stereotypic beliefs are transmitted through various socialization agents such as family, peers, education, media, and societal institutions, influencing individuals' perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors towards particular social groups through exposure, reinforcement, and normalization of stereotypes within cultural contexts
• Stereotype accuracy


  The degree to which a stereotype accurately reflects the characteristics or behaviors of a particular group within a given context, acknowledging that some stereotypes may align with empirical observations or statistical trends, while others may be inaccurate or based on biased perceptions
• Interpersonal discrimination


  Unfair or unequal treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular social group, such as race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation, occurring in face-to-face interactions or personal relationships. This form of discrimination can manifest through actions, behaviors, or language that marginalizes, excludes, or disadvantages individuals or groups, perpetuating inequalities and injustices within society
• Patterns of prejudice development


  Can vary but often involve socialization processes in which individuals acquire prejudiced attitudes and beliefs from family, peers, media, and societal influences. This can lead to the internalization of stereotypes, biases, and discriminatory behaviors, which may become ingrained over time and persist unless challenged or unlearned through education, exposure to diverse perspectives, and interventions promoting empathy, understanding, and social justice
• Processes of prejudice development


  Prejudice develops through socialization, categorization, social learning, and intergroup dynamics, shaping attitudes and behaviors towards different social groups within society
• Barriers to intergroup contact


  Prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination, fear of rejection or conflict, lack of opportunities for meaningful interaction, and structural inequalities, which hinder positive interactions and mutual understanding between members of different social groups
• Robbers Cave study


  1. Boys divided into 2 groups, formed their own identity

  2. Competition introduced through games with prizes

  3. Solidarity within each group enhanced

  4. Created bias because groups don't like each other, this is reduced through increased contact which made things worse

  5. Reduced bias by having groups work together for a common goal which reduced conflict between the groups (overarching identity decreases conflict)
• Category accentuation


  Dividing things into groups changes perception, differences between categories exaggerated, differences within categories minimized
• Minimal group paradigm


  Tajfel tries to create minimal setting for intergroup bias, you don't see the other group
• Allocation task


  Participants are asked to distribute resources/money among themselves and others, purpose is to observe how people make decisions about sharing resources and to understand their attitudes towards fairness, equality, and self-interest
• Fein & Spencer study 1


  Self-affirmation increased esteem but had differing effects on perceptions of Jewish versus Italian women, with self-affirmation mitigating bias against Jewish women but not against Italian women
• Fein & Spencer study 2


  Participants who received negative feedback and were presented with Greg described as gay reported higher self-esteem compared to those who received negative feedback and were presented with Greg described as straight, suggesting that stereotyping the target increased self-esteem, particularly in the context of negative feedback
• Fein & Spencer study 3


  Participants who failed the test and then evaluated a Jewish target reported higher self-esteem compared to those who evaluated a non-Jewish target, suggesting that making prejudiced judgments against the Jewish target led to an increase in self-esteem, particularly among those who had experienced failure
• Kunda motivation & activation/inhibition


  Participants who received negative feedback from a Black evaluator showed increased stereotype activation, completing word fragments like "PO_ _" with words associated with Black stereotypes (e.g., "POOR"), compared to those who received negative feedback from a White evaluator; however, when praised by the Black evaluator, stereotype activation was inhibited, while criticism from the Black evaluator led to increased stereotype activation, suggesting that the evaluator's race influenced stereotype activation and self-evaluation depending on feedback type
• Contrell & Neuberg


  Exposure to groups stereotyped as dangerous led to an increased interest in self-defense courses and greater support for police patrols, while exposure to groups stereotyped as health threats resulted in increased commitment to medical checkups but decreased willingness to drink from the same fountain as members of those groups
• Ackerman 2006


  The Common Ingroup Identity (CRRD) effect, which typically reduces bias between ingroup and outgroup members, may not occur in situations where outgroup members are perceived as dangerous; furthermore, this effect disappears when both ingroup and outgroup faces display angry expressions, suggesting that attention allocation to angry outgroup faces is efficient, potentially indicating a threat response mechanism
• Becker 2010


  Subjects who watched "Silence of the Lambs" exhibited enhanced fear responses when shown ingroup and outgroup faces, as evidenced by increased gaze time and better recognition accuracy for outgroup faces, suggesting heightened attention and encoding of potentially threatening outgroup stimuli
• Schaller


  Cognitive factors play a significant role in the formation of role-based stereotyping, indicating that individuals' cognitive processes contribute to the development and reinforcement of stereotypes based on social roles and expectations
• Eagly & Karau 2002


  Stereotypes have practical implications, such as women being less likely to be chosen as leaders due to incongruence with traditional gender roles. Although this is less true now, behaviors fulfilling leadership roles are often evaluated more negatively when performed by women than men, leading to a dual role double standard where stereotypic beliefs about a target can lead to devaluation in relevant contexts. Individuals may be motivated to fit congruent roles both internally and externally to be valued and liked, potentially leading to self-selection into certain roles
• Davison & Burke 2000


  Men were preferred for jobs that were traditionally male sex-typed, while women were preferred for jobs that were traditionally female sex-typed
• Ross Macusin 2012


  Double-blind study involving 127 science faculty, subtle bias in salary allocation was observed based on gender, with individuals showing higher levels of implicit prejudice exhibiting more discrimination, challenging Role Theory's explanation for the application of group stereotypes to all members rather than just role players. This bias extended to individuals in non-traditional roles, such as women executives, and even to newborns, indicating that stereotypes about communal and agentic traits are applied regardless of role or job status, as observed by Eagly in a sex-only condition
• Rubin 1974


  30 sets of parents (15 with sons and 15 with daughters) were interviewed within the first 24 hours of birth and asked to rate their newborns on 18 different traits
• Hoffman & Hurst 1990


  In Study 1, participants formed false stereotypes about two groups, the Ackmians and the Orinthians, based on their assigned roles, even when the groups were described as having the same personality traits. Additionally, providing explanations for the role distribution reinforced these stereotypes, with stronger effects observed when the groups were described as different species rather than different sub-cultures within a single species. Sex differences, although important, are not required for the formation of stereotypes, as stereotypes can generalize to individuals who do not conform to traditional gender roles, leading to intrinsic, category-wide stereotypes. Once stereotypes are established, perceivers may interpret role-based differences in behavior as confirmation of these stereotypes, reinforcing their beliefs about group characteristics
• Fiske's content model


  Focus of social judgment revolves around two key dimensions: warmth, which pertains to whether individuals intend good or ill, and competence, which refers to their capability of carrying out those intentions. From the interplay of warmth and competence, four combinations of groups are formed, each eliciting different emotions based on the perceived intentions and capabilities of the group members
• Duckitt


  The winning group may seek to dominate the inferior group to prove their superiority, leading to the development of stereotypes as a means of justifying their actions. This dominance can sometimes result in stable oppression, where the winning group continues to exert control and advantage over the losing group
• Schaller & Neuberg


  Socio-functional stereotypes suggest that different types of threats can evoke distinct emotional responses, leading to fluctuations in the four combinations of warmth and competence stereotypes over time, as perceptions of group intentions and capabilities adapt to varying socio-functional contexts and perceived threats
• Stangor & Sechrist


  Participants were categorized based on their levels of prejudice towards Black individuals, with some exhibiting high prejudice and others low prejudice. These participants were then exposed to information indicating whether their beliefs about Black individuals were shared by others or not
• Sinclair's r
• Warmth


  Pertains to whether individuals intend good or ill
• Competence


  Refers to individuals' capability of carrying out their intentions
• Combinations of warmth and competence


  • Four combinations of groups are formed, each eliciting different emotions based on the perceived intentions and capabilities of the group members