S2. Pathology

• osteoarthritis


  degenerative joint disease
• avascular necrosis


  death of bone tissue due to lack of blood supple
• osteochondroma


  a relatively common imaging find, (10-15%) of all bone tumors & approximately 35% of all benign bone tumors
• chondrosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, osteosarcoma


  list 3 types of malignant cancers
• ankylosing spondylitis


  arthritis that causes inflammation in the joints and ligaments of the spine
• hangman's fracture


  bilateral fracture of pedicles of C2. Occurs when neck is subjected to extreme hyperextension (MVC or fall)
• cervical spondylolisthesis


  anteroposterior vertebral slipping of more than 2mm
• cervical fusion


  the disc is removed and a graft is inserted to fuse together bones above and below the disc
• Jefferson fracture


  anterior and posterior arches of C1 are fractured as the skull slams into the ring. Can occur from landing on head or abruptly on one's feet.
• odontoid fracture


  fracture though dens, can extend into lateral masses of C1
• enlarged adenoids


  can obstruct airway and it often requires surgical intervention
• compression fracture


  causes compaction of bone and a decrease in length or width
• flail chest


  multiple rib fractures resulting in chest injury
• hemothorax


  blood in the pleural space
• pneumothorax 


  collection of air outside the lung within the pleural cavity
• atelectasis


  the collapse of a lung or part of the lung
• herniated disc


  decreased disk space
• degenerative disc disease


  spinal disc breaking down, decreasing joint space and can cause bone spurring
• barrett esophagus


  lining of distal esophagus damaged by acid reflux. Inflammation, ulcers, strictures, thickened mucosal folds
• achalasia


  failure of smooth muscle to relax, decreased peristalsis, difficulty of food passing into stomach
• esophageal varices


  enlarged veins of lower esophagus that develop when blood flow to liver is blocked. The bleeding of these is life threatening
• Zenker diverticulum


  pharyngeal outpouching of the mucosa, results when cricopharyngeal muscle fails to relax during swallowing. Often presents with dysphagia, occurs in elderly population
• esophageal carcinoma


  originates in lining of esophagus, dysplasia of cells that can result in strictures
• esophageal reflux


  stomach contents repeatedly flow back into esophagus. This can be triggered by eating certain foods, large meals, or drinking certain beverages.
• hiatal hernia


  upper portion of stomach passes through diaphragm into thoracic cavity
• peptic ulcer


  sore of the lining of alimentary canal
• pyloric stenosis


  narrowing of pyloric canal resulting in obstruction
• bezoar


  mass in stomach formed by indigestible material
• biliary stenosis


  bile duct stricture, often caused by injury or gallbladder removal
• biliary stenosis


  bile ducts are clocked. Bile unable to flow into intestines and builds up in liver.
• atresia


  orifice or passage is closed or absent
• cholelithiasis


  presence of gallstones in gallbladder
• Ileus


  failure of bowel peristalsis, referred to as "nonmechanical bowel obstruction"
• volvulus


  looping of intestine and the mesentery causing bowel obstruction
• intussusception


  telescoping of bowel into adjacent portion causing an obstruction and can be life-threatening
• intussusception


  telescoping of bowel into adjacent portion causing a life-threating obstruction
• hernia


  there is different types where part of intestine protrudes through abdominal muscle
• polyps


  growth or mass protruding from mucosal membrane
• diverticulosis


  diverticula (small out pouches) that develop in the colon
• crohn's disease


  inflammatory bowel disease causing chronic inflammation of small or large bowel