Methods of research

• Lab


  • Conducted in highly controlled environments
  • Participants can be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
  • Researcher deliberately changes something (IV) to see the effect of this on something else (DV)
• Strengths of Lab Experiments


  • High control over extraneous variables so cause and effect is assumed
  • Conditions can be replicated
  • Variables measured accurately with lab tools
• Limitations of Lab Experiments


  • Data may lack ecological validity
  • High risk of demand characteristics
  • Risk of experimenter bias
  • Lacks mundane realism
• Field experiments


  • Conducted in a natural setting
  • Some variables cannot be controlled due to unpredictability of real-life settings
  • Researcher manipulates something (IV) to see the effect of this on something else (DV) in a natural environment
• Strengths of field experiments


  • High ecological validity
  • Demand characteristics less of an issue
• Limitations of field experiments


  • Extraneous variables could confound results
  • Ethical principles -> lack of informed consent
  • Sample bias
  • Precise replication difficult -> poor reliability
• Natural Experiments


  • Measures the effect of an IV on a DV, but researcher has no control over IV and cannot change it
  • IV is a naturally occurring event
• Strengths of Natural Experiments


  • High ecological validity
  • Demand characteristics less of an issue
• Limitations of Natural Experiments


  • Sample bias
  • Extraneous variables
  • Ethical issues -> lack of informed consent and deception
• Quasi


  • IV based on existing difference between people (ex. age, gender)
  • Used an existing IV so it cannot be changed
• Strengths of Quasi Experiments

  • Internally valid pre-existing variables
  • Carried out under controlled conditions
• Limitations of Quasi Experiments

  • No control over assignment of participants to IV
• Purpose of observations


  • Provides psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them
  • Allows researchers to study more complex interactions between variables
  • Often used within in an experiment (ex. a way of assessing the dependent variable)
  • Used to watch the way people respond in real life settings
• Naturalistic Observation


  Watching and recording behaviour in the seating within which it would naturally occur
• Covert Observation


  Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their consent and knowledge
• Naturalistic Observation


  • Used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables
  • All aspects of the environment are free to vary
• Strengths of Naturalistic Observation


  • High external validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life
• Covert Observation


  • Observation must be public and the behaviour happening anyway to be ethical
  • Strength: Demand characteristics are not a problem which increases internal validity
  • Limitation: Unethical
• Limitations of Naturalistic Observation


  • Lack of control makes replication difficult
• Overt Observation


  Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
• Controlled Observation


  Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment (some variables are controlled)
• Overt Observation


  • Strength: More ethically acceptable
  • Limitation: Demand characteristics
• Controlled Observation


  • Control over extraneous variables
  • Control over variables -> manipulation of cause and effect
• Participant Observation


  Researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
• Strengths of Controlled Observation


  • Extraneous variables less of a factor so replication is easier
• Participant Observation


  • Strength: Increases external validity - researcher experiences same situation
  • Limitation: Researcher may lose objectivity (line between being a researcher and being a participant becomes blurred)
• Limitations of Controlled Observation

  • Cannot be generalised
• Non-participant Observation


  Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
• Non-participant Observation


  • Strength: Investigator effects and evaluation apprehension are less likely as the researcher is not visible
  • Limitation: May lose insight to be gained in a participant observation
• Questionnaires


  Written self-report technique where participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to
• Questionnaires

  • Used to assess thoughts and feelings
  • Administered in person, by post, online, over the phone, or to a group of participants simultaneously
• Question format


  • Closed Questions
  • Open Questions
• Closed Questions


  Where there is a pre-determined set of answers to choose from
• Closed Questions


  • "Do you exercise?" - 'Yes/No' or 'I exercise 1/2/3/4 times a week'
• Closed Questions


  • Produces quantitative data by limiting answers given
  • Easier to analyse but may lack depth
• Open Questions


  Where there is no restriction on how participants make their response
• Open Questions


  • "How does the sight of seeing dogs in a public place without a lead make you feel?"
• Open Questions


  • Produces qualitative data
  • Rich in depth and detail but may be difficult to analyse
• Strengths of questionnaires


  • A relatively cheap and quick way to gather a large amount of data in a small amount of time
  • Since questionnaires can be completed anonymously responses may be more likely to be honest
• Weaknesses of questionnaires


  • Social desirability bias may arise, where participants give incorrect responses to try to put themselves in a socially acceptable light
  • Distributing questions en masse (ex. via post or the internet) means that any data collected relies on responses to be returned; response rates are often poor, plus it may be that only a certain type of person returns questionnaires, so generalising the damp,e of results to a large population can be unconvincing
  • Questionnaires may be flawed if some questions are leading
  • If questions are misunderstood, participants completing privately cannot get clarification on the meaning, so many complete them incorrectly