observation

• what is an observation

  a non-experimental technique, the researcher watches and records behaviour of participants without manipulating levels of IV
• controlled observation

  some variables are controlled, in an attempt to give participants the same experience. This is often conducted in a laboratory setting
• controlled observation strengths

  • the controlled environment reduces the likelihood that extraneous variables are responsible for observed behaviour
  • results are likely to be reliable as standardised procedures are used and so can be repeated easily
• controlled observation weaknesses

  • the artificial environment may result in unnatural behaviour which means it lacks ecological validity because it can't be generalised to real life
• naturalistic observation


  takes place in the 'real world' places the participants are likely to spend their time such as school, work or in their own homes
• naturalistic observation strengths

  • more realistic, partcipants are likely to show more naturalistic behaviour
  • high ecological validity as the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in a natural environment without interfering
• naturalistic observation weaknesses

  • extraneous variables may be responsible for the behaviour observed resulting in lower internal validity
  • standardised procedures aren't used so they can't be replicated to check reliability
• overt observation


  the participants can see the researcher, and are aware their behaviour is being observed as part of an observational study
• overt observation strengths

  • it is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent
• overt observation weaknesses

  • participants' awareness of being studied may affect the naturalness of their behaviour- they may respond to demand characteristics or display behaviours that make them look more favourable- social desirability bias
• covert observation


  the participants are not aware they are being observed and they cannot see someone taking notes
• covert observation strengths

  • as participants are unaware they are being observed, they are more likely to show naturalistic behaviour free from demand characteristics or social desirability bias
• covert observation weaknesses

  • less ethical as participants cannot give informed consent as they are unaware they are taking part
• participant observation

  the researcher joins the group being observed and takes part in the group's activities and conversations
• participant observation strengths

  • by taking part, the researcher may build rapport, more trust and comfort could lead to the participants behaving more naturally and disclosing more
• participant observation weaknesses

  • researchers can lose objectivity, interpretation of behaviour is biased, seeing only from the participants perspective (going native)
  • demand characteristics are more likely due to the visible presence of the researcher
• non participant observation


  the researcher is separate from the participants, recording observations without taking part in the groups activities
• non participant strengths

  • the researcher is more likely to remain objective in their interpretation of the participant's behaviour
  • demand characteristics are less likely as the researcher is not visible (so cannot influence participant behaviour)
• non participant weaknesses

  • Due to a lack of proximity the researcher might get less insight into behaviours as they may overlook or miss behaviours of interest.
• observational design

  the choice of behaviours to record and how they are measured
• operationalised behavioural categories


  the target behaviour(e.g. aggression)needs to be broken into components that can be observed and measured(e.g. hitting, kicking)
• time sampling


  where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals. For example, every 10 seconds.
• strengths of time sampling

  • more flexibility to be able to record unexpected types of behaviour
• weaknesses of time sampling

  • can miss behaviour that happens outside of the recording periods
• event sampling


  It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs from the list of operationalised behavioural categories
• event sampling strengths

  • it helps to preserve the integrity or wholeness of the event being studied.
• event sampling weaknesses

  • may miss relevant behaviour that isn't on the list of behavioural categories
  • may miss behaviours if there is too much going on
• assessing reliability


  even with clear behavioural categories, interpreting observed behaviour can be affected by bias with only 1 observer.they could also miss something. researchers should assess the reliability of their own observation by seeing if it is consistent with another researcher's observation
• inter-observer/rater reliability


  two or more trained observers conduct the same observation

  1. agree and use the same checklist/tally of operationalised categories
  2. observation is conducted separately by each observer at the same time
  3. compare the two independently produced data sets. A test of correlation can assess the strength of the relationship between two data sets. A correlation of 0.8 or stronger is generally accepted.
• how can the researcher reduce observer bias?

  by using two observers who are unaware of the true aims of the research(double-blind)