Cog processes

• what are the three topics and the studies for them?

  Models of memory

  MSM:

  - Glanzer + Cunitz 1966

  - HM, Milner 1957

  WMM:

  - Landry + Bartling 2011

  
  

  Schema theory

  - Loftus + Palmer 1974

  - Bartlett 1932

  
  

  Thinking and decision making

  - Loftus and Palmer 1974

  - Tversky and Kahnman 1974
• Intro/theory for cog approach? What is cognitive processing and what is an example of it with definitions?

  Sees the mind as a computer machine which processes information from our environment.

  
  

  Looks at mental processes which happen in our brain focused on the topic of memory.

  
  

  Cog processing = tasks which occur within our brain.

  Memory is a cog process = where data is stored, encoded and retrieved in our brain. They make models as representation of what happens in our brains to understand it all.

  Thinking = Reasoning about something.

  Decision-making = choosing alternatives based on preferences.
• What are the different types of memory?

  Short term + Long term

  
  

  In long term you have:

  
  

  - Declarative memory = facts and events which can be recalled whenever.

  - Procedural memory = unconscious memory of skills and how to do them (e.g., walk).

  
  

  In declarative mem:

  1) Episodic mem = specific events which happened at a specific time.

  2) Semantic mem = facts of people with no link to time or place.
• What is the MSM?

  Sensory mem = collects info (echoic-sounds or iconic-vision)from the environment and transfers to STM or loses it. Capacity is limited by perception and duration is very short between 1 to 5 seconds.

  
  

  STM = Capacity = 7 +/- 2 items, although chunking can help. Duration = no longer than 30 seconds. Maintenance rehearsal keeps it in STM for longer and elaborate rehearsal transfers it to LTM.

  
  

  LTM = Capacity + duration = unlimited.

  
• 2 studies for MSM?

  Glanzer + Cunitz 1966 + HM, Corkin 1997
• Glanzer + Cunitz 1966?

  Aim - Investigate whether position of words affect recall and whether STM and LTM are different stores.

  
  

  Procedure - 240 US army males who were asked to recall words in any order.

  1) 1/2 asked to recall words immediately after memorising them.

  2) 1/2 asked to recall words after counting backwards for 30s before recalling words as a distraction.

  
  

  Findings - Those in condition 2 remembered less words as it implies the recency effect as they remembered the words at the end rather than the beginning. Info lost in middle was because there was too much elaborate rehersal as it has a small capacity of 7 +/- 2 items.

  
  

  Conclusion - STM + LYM are 2 separate stores and provide support for MSM.

  
  

  Critical thinking:

  +

  Support for MSM + 2 memory stores.

  High controls = more accurate.

  
  

  -

  Low ecological validity = is artificial and doesn't tell us about memory in real life.

  Sample only male - cannot generalise to wider population.
• HM + Millner 1997 study?

  Background:

  HM had a bicyicle accident which lead him to have a pole through his frontal cortex, causing epileptic seizures. He had experimental surgery to remove certain areas in the brain linked to the seizures which causes anterograde amnesia where he lost ability to form new memories.

  
  

  Corkin - used MRI scans to analyse the damage to his temporal lobe (hippocampus) which is linked to STM and LTM stores.

  
  

  Critical thinking:

  +

  Case study = great depth and detail, followed him for his whole life. Allowed research into an area that is unethical to recreate.

  Very reliable due to many studies and triangulation of methods and researchers being used (MRI, observations).

  
  

  -

  The hippocampus is biological to everyone therefore findings could only be applied to HM.
• Evaluation of MSM?

  +

  Research to support separate memory stores for LTM and STM.

  The model gives researchers a way to talk about memory in the physical presence as they can refer back to the model.

  Biological evidence states that the prefrontal cortex is linked to STM tasks and that the hippocampus looks at LTM.

  
  

  -

  The model is oversimplified and is reductionist as it does not consider other factors that could influence memory such as hormones and stress. Model also does not explain FBM or reconstructive memory.
• What is the WMM? + What is the study?

  Central execuative = the boss meaning it is the most important part, where they divide info into sections. Has a limited capacity.

  
  

  Phonological loop = split into:

  1) Articulatory control system = 'inner voice', only lasts for 2 seconds and only holds verbal info.

  2) Phonological store = 'inner ear', holds audible info.

  
  

  Visio-spatial sketchpad

  'inner eye, stores visual patterns.

  
  

  Landry + Bartling 2011

  
• Landry + Bartling 2011

  Aim - investigate articulatory suppressions affect on recall of a list of words.

  
  

  Procedure - 34 undergrad psych students, split into the control group (no task while memorising) and the experiment group (had articulatory suppression when memorising - repeating '1' and '2').

  
  

  Was 10 lists containing 7 letters, shown for 5 seconds then to wait 5 seconds and to recall letters in correct order. Repeated 10 times.

  
  

  Results = Control group had a 76% accurate recall and 45% for experimental group.

  
  

  Conclusion = Disruption of the phonological loop made from articulatory suppression resulted in less accurate memories as it prevented rehearsal due to an overload of information.
• Evaluation of WMM

  +

  Is less reductionist than the MSM as it states that there is different types of information and memory stores to accommodate this.

  
  

  Brain scans have shown that different parts of the brain helps for visual and verbal tasks in memory.

  
  

  
  

  -

  Only looks at STM and tells us little about LTM which is just as important.

  
  

  The central executive does not have a clear job title and role compared to the others.

  
  

  Does not explain FBM and reconstructive memory.
• Contrast the two models of memory.

  View of memory = MSM is more holistic and looks at both LTM and STM whereas the WMM only looks at STM.

  
  

  Processing = MSM states that rehearsal is how info moves from the store, but WMM does not explain how info moves.

  
  

  Dual Processing = MSM does not include dual processing whereas WMM explains components such as the visuospatial, phonological stores which looks at dual processing.
• What are the studies which look at schema theory?

  Loftus and Palmer 1974 + Bartlett 1932
• What is schema and schema theory?

  Schemas = mental representations of pre-existing knowledge about the world. This helps to organise our knowledge, to assist recall, and to help make sense of our surroundings. They are helpful as they simplify the world, however can cause stereotypes.

  
  

  Assimilation = adding a new object/thing into a pre-existing schema (a cat is a dog).

  
  

  Accommodation = changing a pre-existing schema into a new one to accommodate the object/item (cat comes under pets not dog). This occurs at 18 months.
• Bartlett 1932

  Aim - investigate memory of an unfamiliar story.

  
  

  procedure - Students at a US university told to read a Native American story called the War of Ghosts.

  1) 1/2 did repeated reproduction where they repeated the story over weeks.

  2) 1/2 did serial reproduction where they repeated it to another person.

  
  

  findings - participants changed the story to try to remember it.

  - canoes became boats (British culture - boats more commonly used).

  - ghosts became ignored (British culture - not common on superstition).

  
  

  conclusions - Memory is reconstructive, as people use schemas for unfamiliar materials

  
  

  Critical thinking:

  +

  Gave scientific research into schema theory which links to memory.

  Has ecological validity, as remembering what to repeat is a natural activity.

  
  

  -

  Findings have low reliability - as other researchers tried to replicate but failed due to a lack of standardised procedures.

  Has been criticised for not being standardised and specific enough making it difficult to replicate.
• Loftus and Palmer 1974


  aim - investigate whether leading language affects the memory of events of eyewitnesses.

  
  

  procedure - 45 American uni students split into 5 groups and shown 7 videos of car crashes. Asked the question 'How fast were the cars going when they ... each other' 'smashed, collided, bumped, hits, contacted'.

  
  

  did 2nd study on 150 participants who also saw the clips and asked the speed estimation when using the verb 'hit' or 'smashed'. Also asked if they saw glass.

  
  

  findings - smashed = 40.5mph, contacted = 31.8mph. Those in smashed group saw glass due to intensity of verb.

  
  

  conclusion - external information can change memories of an event, as prior definitions of words influence the speed and meaning of the verb.

  
  

  Critical thinking: ?

  +

  Extraneous variables controlled = can accurately measure the IV. Also good cause and effect of the study.

  The procedure was standardised therefore all participants saw the same video and were asked the same question (other than the verb changes). Good if the researcher wanted to replicate the study to see if the results are the same.

  
  

  -

  Students used = not a representative sample and not as diverse.

  Demand characteristics as they knew it was an experiment and therefore could change the answers according to what they think they are researching.

  Ecological validity - lab experiment therefore is artificial.
• Evaluate schema theory

  Unbiased = schema theory is applied across all cultures, more research in the west and less in the east.

  
  

  Reductionist = Does not take into account biological features as to why we remember certain things.

  
  

  Lots of research = which supports findings of both studies and that schema theory is real.
• What is thinking and decision making? The studies, definitions and models?

  Tversky and Kahnmen 1981

  Alter et al 2007

  
  

  Thinking = using prior knowledge to interpret the world and make predictions. Making a decision is where you look at alternatives.

  Heuristics = mental shortcuts to fix a problem.

  
  

  Models:

  - Due Process model = system 1 + 2

  System 1 = automatic, fast, emotional response.

  System 2 = attention, rational, and needs effort.

  -> Important we look at both systems when making a decision
• issue with thinking + decision making?

  behaviour is complex and we have to choose what to pay attention to.
• Tversky and Kahnman 1981

  Aim - investigate framing effects influence on intuitive and rational thinking.

  
  

  Procedure - 307 undergrad students asked to complete a questionnaire about an imaginary outbreak of a disease called the Asian Disease.

  
  

  Group 1 = asked to choose between a program which would definitely save 200 people or a program which might save 600 or none at all.

  
  

  Group 2 = asked to choose between a program which would certainly leave 400 to die or another programme which might leave 600 to die or none at all.

  
  

  Findings - Group 1 preferred to save the 200 people for definite and group 2 preferred to might leave 600 to die or none due to hope of less causalities.

  
  

  Conclusion - Took this as evidence for framing effects as certainty helped guide decisions. Looks at system 1 as they had to make quick decisions for the programs.

  
  

  Critical thinking:

  +

  Application to theory as links to rational thinking in the due process model.

  
  

  -

  Some argue that it is too focused on judgements and is not big enough for intuitive thinking.

  
  

  Unethical = psychological harm.
• Alter et al 2007

  Aim - Investigate cognitive disfluency on rational thinking over intuitive thinking.

  
  

  Procedure - 40 undergrad volunteers completed the CRT (cognitive reflection test) questionnaire, where they were randomly assigned to groups.

  
  

  1) The text was written in an easy-to-read font.

  2) The text was written in italic font, difficult to read.

  
  

  Findings - participants answered more questions correctly when reading the difficult-to-read font. This was because of the rational thinking being used to focus on the question fully. The hard-to-read font triggered our system 2 thinking when solving the question.
• evaluate dual system theory?

  +

  Biological support for how different types of thinking can be processed.

  Evidence for two separate thinking stores (system 1 + 2).

  
  

  -

  The model is reductionist as it does not clearly explain how thinking works.

  System 1 and system 2 are not clear and lack reasoning.