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• Evidence

  2007 - 70% of children identified as SEN are boys.

  12% GCSE difference.

  Universities - 55% vs 45%
• The impact of feminism

  The feminist movement has challenged stereotypes associated with women since the 1960s. Although full rights have yet to be achieved, there has been progress in raising women's expectations and self esteem. Images of women in the media are more varied than previously.
• Changes in the family

  Greater numbers of lone mother households mean that women need to be breadwinners which creates a new role model for children. Increase in divorce has suggested that its unwise to rely on a husband to provide.
• Changes in women's employment

  1970 Equal Pay Act, 1975 Sex Discrimination Act.

  The proportion of women in work has increased from 54% in 1971 to 67% in 2017.

  Some women are breaking through the glass ceiling.

  The pay gap has slightly declined.

  However, in 2018, the World Economic Forum stated that it will take 202 years to close the pay gap, altogether.

  Women may feel more able to aim for better jobs as a result of feminism.

  This incentivises girls to gain qualifications.
• Sue Sharp (1994)


  Results of interviews were compared from the 1970s and 1990s. The girls in 1974 had low aspirations, felt educational success was unattractive and unfeminine and prioritised love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers, in that order. By the 1990s, girls prioritised careers and being able to support themselves.
• Back and Beck Gernsheim (2001)


  The changing attitude of girls is linked to growing individualism in society, were independence and self-sufficiency is valued.
• Fuller (2011)


  Educational success was a central aspect of the girls in her study. They saw themselves as creators of their own future. They believed in meritocracy and aimed for a career which would enable them to support themselves.
• Class differences


  However, there are class differences in how far girls' ambitions have changed. Some working class girls continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations.
• Equal opportunities policies


  As a result of feminism, those who run the system are now much more aware of gender issues.
• GIRST and WISE


  Girls into science and technology and women into science and engineering encourage girls to pursue careers in non-traditional areas.
• The National Curriculum (1988)


  Removed one source of sexism by making girls and boys study the same subjects.
• Jo Boaler (1998)


  The impact of equal opportunities policies is a key reason for the changes in girls' achievement. Many barriers have been removed and schools have become more meritocratic.
• Gender Action schools award programme (2018)


  Announced by the Greater London Deputy Mayor for Education and Childcare. Based on a decade of research, the programme provides practical support for schools to put gender equality at the heart of everything they do.
• Positive role models in school

  Recently, there has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers. Female teachers can become role models.
• GCSE and coursework


  Changes in the ways pupils have been assessed have favoured girls over boys.
• Stephen Gorard (2005)


  The gender gap increased when GCSEs were introduced as a result of coursework.
• Eirene Mitsos and Ken Browne (1998)


  They conclude that girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and are better organised than boys. Girls: spend more time on work, take more care with presentation, are better at meeting deadlines, bring the right equipment and materials to lesson.
• Jannette Elwood (2005)


  Although coursework has some influence, it is unlikely to be the only cause of the gender gap as written exams often have more influence on final grades.
• Teacher attention


  Dale Spencer (1983): teachers spend more time interacting with boys than girls. Jane and Peter French (1993): the amount of attention teachers paid to boys and girls for academic reasons was similar. Becky Francis (2001): while boys got more attention, they were disciplined more harshly. Joan Swann and David Graddol (1994): boys are more boisterous and attract the teachers gaze more than girls. Swann (1998): gender differences in communication styles.
• Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum


  Some sociologists argue that the removal of gender stereotypes from learning materials has removed barriers to girls' achievement. Gaby Weiner (1995): since the 1980s, teachers have challenged such stereotypes.
• Selection and league tables


  David Jackson (1998) notes that the introduction of league tables has improved opportunities for girls, who receive higher exam results. Roger Slee (1998): boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties and dare four times more likely to be excluded. Boys may seem to be 'liability students'.
• Sexism in schools


  Pinkett and Roberts (2019): Around half of female students and a third of male students have witnessed someone being sexist and a third of girls have received unwanted sexual attention in school.
• Liberal feminists


  Believe that good progress has been made in improving girls achievement. and further progress can be made by: development of equal opportunity policies, encouraging positive role models, overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes.
• Radical feminists


  The system remains patriarchal since: sexual harassment continues, education still limits girls subject choices, male teachers are still more likely to become headteacher, women are under-represented in parts of the curriculum.
• Class data


  2013: 40.6% of girls on FSM achieved 5 A*-C GCSEs, compared to 67.5% of non FSM girls.
• Archer et al (2010)


  By performing working class feminine identities, girls gained symbolic capital from their peers by: adopting a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity, having a boyfriend and being 'loud'. Girls can either gain symbolic capital or educational capital.
• Evans (2009)


  Sixth-form girls wanted to go to university to increase earning power, not to help themselves but their families.
• Archer


  Preference for the local (university) is a feature of the working class habitus.
• Boys and literacy


  DfES (2007) poor literacy and language skills causes the gender gap as parents spend less time reading to their sons and since mother do most reading, it can be seen as a feminine activity. Girls have a greater 'bedroom culture'.
• Globalisation and the decline of traditional men's jobs


  Mitsos and Browne: The decline of heavy industry since the 1980s has caused an identity crisis for men which undermines their motivation and self esteem.
• Feminisation of education


  Tony Sewell: boys fall behind since education has become feminised. Schools do not nurture 'masculine' traits such as competitiveness and leadership and instead, celebrate qualities associated with girls. He also sees coursework as a major cause of the gender gap.
• Shortage of male primary school teachers


  DfES (2007) men make up only 16% of primary school teachers. Becky Francis (2006): two-thirds of 7-8 year olds believe the gender of teachers doesn't matter. Myhill and Jones (2006) found that 13-15 year olds felt male teachers treated boys more harshly.
• Policies to raise boys achievement


  Encourage boys to read what they want.

  Closely monitor truancy.

  Allow some competitiveness in the classroom.

  Encourage more male teachers.

  make school transitions more flexible.

  Train teachers to be aware if their own gender bias.