complete overview

• Plate Tectonics Theory


  • Earth's lithosphere is divided into rigid tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere
  • Movement of plates is driven by convection currents in the mantle, leading to various tectonic processes
• Plate Boundaries


  • Divergent Boundaries: Plates move apart due to tensional forces. Examples include mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and rift valleys (e.g., East African Rift)
  • Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide due to compressional forces. Subduction zones form where oceanic and continental plates converge, leading to volcanic arcs (e.g., Andes) and oceanic trenches (e.g., Mariana Trench)
  • Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other horizontally due to shear forces. Example: San Andreas Fault
• Volcanoes


  • Formation: Typically occur at convergent boundaries (subduction zones) and divergent boundaries (mid-ocean ridges). Also found above hotspots (e.g., Hawaii)
  • Types: Shield volcanoes (gentle slopes, fluid lava), composite volcanoes (steep slopes, explosive eruptions), and cinder cone volcanoes (small, steep-sided)
  • Hazards: Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, lahars (mudflows), and volcanic gases (e.g., sulfur dioxide)
• Earthquakes


  • Causes: Result from the release of stress along faults due to tectonic forces. Also triggered by volcanic activity, human activities (e.g., fracking), and isostatic rebound
  • Measurement: Magnitude measured using the Richter Scale (logarithmic scale) and intensity using the Modified Mercalli Scale (based on observed effects)
  • Hazards: Primary effects include ground shaking, surface rupture, and tsunamis. Secondary effects include landslides, liquefaction, and fires
• Tsunamis


  • Formation: Generated by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or submarine landslides, causing the displacement of water
  • Characteristics: Initially shallow in deep ocean but gain height and energy as they approach coastal areas, leading to devastating inundation
  • Mitigation: Early warning systems, coastal planning, and land-use zoning help mitigate tsunami risks
• Tectonic Hazards Management


  • Preparedness: Education, public awareness campaigns, and emergency drills
  • Prediction: Monitoring seismic activity, ground deformation, and gas emissions
  • Response: Search and rescue operations, evacuation plans, and humanitarian aid
  • Recovery: Infrastructure repair, rebuilding communities, and long-term hazard mitigation strategies
• Weathering


  Mechanical (freeze-thaw, exfoliation) and chemical (hydration, oxidation) processes that break down rocks in situ
• Mass Movement


  Downhill movement of weathered material due to gravity, including landslides, rockfalls, and slumps
• Fluvial Processes


  • Erosion: Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and solution by flowing water
  • Transportation: Suspension, traction, saltation, and solution of sediment
  • Deposition: Occurs when the velocity of water decreases, leading to sediment settling
• River Landforms


  • Upper Course: V-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs, and waterfalls
  • Middle Course: Meanders, oxbow lakes, and floodplains
  • Lower Course: Levees, deltas, and estuaries
• Coastal Processes and Landforms


  • Erosion: Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and solution by waves
  • Deposition: Formation of beaches, spits, bars, and coastal dunes
  • Landforms: Headlands and bays, cliffs, caves, arches, stacks, and stumps
• Glacial Processes and Landforms


  • Erosion: Plucking, abrasion, and freeze-thaw weathering
  • Transportation: By ice as basal sliding or internal deformation
  • Deposition: Till, moraines, drumlins, and eskers
• Karst Processes and Landforms


  • Formation: Dissolution of soluble bedrock (e.g., limestone) by slightly acidic groundwater
  • Landforms: Caves, sinkholes, underground rivers, and karst towers (e.g., limestone pavements)
• Globalisation


  • Increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of economies, societies, cultures, and environments worldwide
  • Characteristics include the flow of goods, services, capital, information, and people across borders
• Drivers of Globalisation


  • Technological Advances: Internet, telecommunications, and transportation innovations facilitate global connectivity
  • Political Changes: Deregulation, trade agreements (e.g., WTO), and geopolitical shifts (e.g., fall of the Iron Curtain) promote international trade
  • Economic Forces: Liberalization, privatization, and multinational corporations (MNCs) seeking cost efficiencies drive global economic integration
  • Cultural Exchange: Migration, tourism, and media dissemination lead to cultural homogenization and hybridization
• Impacts of Globalisation


  • Economic: Increased trade, investment, and economic growth, but also income inequality, job displacement, and vulnerability to global economic downturns
  • Social: Cultural diffusion, multiculturalism, and access to global markets and information, but also cultural homogenization, loss of local traditions, and social polarization
  • Environmental: Transboundary pollution, resource depletion, and environmental degradation due to increased production and consumption, but also global environmental initiatives and awareness
  • Political: Shifts in power dynamics, sovereignty challenges, and global governance structures, but also opportunities for international cooperation and diplomacy
• Responses to Globalisation


  • National Policies: Protectionism, tariffs, and subsidies to safeguard domestic industries
  • International Agreements: Bilateral and multilateral trade agreements (e.g., NAFTA, EU), as well as global initiatives (e.g., Paris Agreement on climate change)
  • Civil Society Action: Advocacy for fair trade, labor rights, and environmental sustainability
  • Regional Integration: Economic blocs (e.g., EU, ASEAN) and trading alliances to promote regional economic cooperation and development
• Urbanisation


  The process of rural-urban migration and the growth of urban areas
• Urban Structures


  Central business districts (CBDs), inner-city areas, suburbs, and peri-urban zones
• Urban Form and Function


  • Morphology: Compact vs. dispersed, radial vs. gridiron street patterns, and land-use zoning
  • Function: Residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, and institutional sectors
• Urban Processes and Change


  • Suburbanisation: Outward expansion of urban areas, often characterized by low-density residential development
  • Counterurbanisation: Movement of people and economic activities from urban to rural areas
  • Regeneration: Revitalization of urban areas through infrastructure investment, gentrification, and brownfield redevelopment
• Rural Change


  • Agricultural Intensification: Mechanization, agrochemicals, and specialization leading to increased agricultural productivity
  • Rural Depopulation: Outmigration, aging populations, and declining economic opportunities in rural areas
  • Diversification: Tourism, renewable energy, and niche agriculture as strategies for rural development
• Planning and Management Strategies


  • Urban Planning: Land-use planning, zoning regulations, and urban design guidelines
  • Sustainable Development: Smart growth, green infrastructure, and compact city policies to promote environmental sustainability
  • Community Participation: Participatory planning, stakeholder engagement, and bottom-up approaches to decision-making
• Water Cycle Processes


  • Evaporation: Conversion of liquid water to water vapor due to solar heating
  • Transpiration: Release of water vapor from plants through stomata
  • Condensation: Conversion of water vapor to liquid water, leading to cloud formation
  • Precipitation: Falling of moisture in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail
  • Infiltration: Percolation of water into the soil and groundwater
• Water Budgets and Balance


  • Inputs: Precipitation and surface runoff
  • Outputs: Evaporation, transpiration, and groundwater recharge
  • Water Balance: Discrepancy between inputs and outputs determines water surplus or deficit
• Water Insecurity


  • Physical Factors: Aridity, drought, and uneven distribution of water resources
  • Human Factors: Population growth, urbanization, pollution, and over-extraction of groundwater
  • Social and Economic Impacts: Waterborne diseases, food insecurity, livelihood disruption, and conflicts over water resources
• Water Management Strategies


  • Supply Management: Water conservation, desalination, and rainwater harvesting
  • Demand Management: Water pricing, water-use efficiency measures, and public awareness campaigns
  • Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): Holistic approach considering social, economic, and environmental dimensions of water management
  • International Cooperation: Transboundary water agreements, river basin commissions, and diplomatic negotiations to address water conflicts
• Carbon Cycle Processes


  • Photosynthesis: Conversion of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds by plants
  • Respiration: Release of CO2 by plants and animals during the breakdown of organic matter
  • Combustion: Burning of fossil fuels, biomass, and organic matter, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere
  • Decomposition: Breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, releasing CO2 and methane (CH4)
• Human Impacts on the Carbon Cycle


  • Fossil Fuel Combustion: Main source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, contributing to global warming and climate change
  • Land Use Change: Deforestation and land conversion release stored carbon into the atmosphere
  • Industrial Processes: Cement production, manufacturing, and waste incineration emit CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs)
• Climate Change Impacts


  • Environmental Impacts: Loss of biodiversity, habitat destruction, and disruption of ecosystems
  • Social and Economic Impacts: Food insecurity, water scarcity, displacement of populations, and economic losses from extreme weather events
  • Health Impacts: Spread of vector-borne diseases, heat-related illnesses, and malnutrition due to crop failures
• Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies


  • Mitigation: Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through energy efficiency, renewable energy deployment, afforestation, and carbon capture and storage (CCS)
  • Adaptation: Building climate-resilient infrastructure, implementing early warning systems, and enhancing community preparedness for climate-related hazards
  • International Cooperation: Paris Agreement commitments, climate finance mechanisms, and technology transfer to support global climate action
• Concepts of Place


  • Location: Geographic coordinates and spatial context
  • Locale: Physical and cultural characteristics of a place
  • Sense of Place: Emotional and subjective attachment to a particular location
  • Place Identity: Collective identity and cultural significance associated with a place
• Factors Influencing Place Identity


  • Physical Environment: Landforms, climate, vegetation, and natural resources shape the character of a place
  • Cultural Factors: Language, religion, traditions, and heritage contribute to the identity of a place
  • Economic Activities: Industry, agriculture, and tourism influence the socio-economic profile of a place
  • Political Factors: Governance structures, borders, and geopolitical relationships shape the political identity of a place
• Rebranding and Regeneration


  • Rebranding: Strategic marketing efforts to change the image and perception of a place, often through cultural, economic, or environmental initiatives
  • Regeneration: Physical, social, and economic revitalization of urban or rural areas through infrastructure investment, community engagement, and environmental improvement projects
• Place-making and Place-marketing


  • Place-making: Collaborative processes involving stakeholders to design and shape public spaces, neighborhoods, and urban environments
  • Place-marketing: Promotion of a place's unique attributes, attractions, and amenities to attract investment, tourism, and talent
• Placelessness and Homogenization


  • Placelessness: Loss of distinctiveness and identity in built environments due to globalization, urban sprawl, and standardized architecture and design
  • Homogenization: Standardization of cultural practices, consumer behaviors, and built environments, leading to the loss of local diversity and uniqueness
• Case Studies


  • Gentrification: Transformation of urban neighborhoods through the influx of affluent residents and investment, often displacing long-term residents and changing the socio-cultural fabric of the area
  • Urban Renewal: Redevelopment of blighted or obsolete urban areas to improve infrastructure, housing, and amenities, aiming to attract investment and stimulate economic growth
  • Cultural Landscapes: UNESCO World Heritage Sites, national parks, and protected areas recognized for their cultural and natural significance, contributing to place identity and heritage preservation