James Blundell carried out early blood transfusions, publishing his paper 'Experiments on the Transfusion of Blood by the Syringe' in 1818.
How were blood transfusions performed before the twentieth century?
Because blood clotted when it was removed from the body, early blood transfusions were directly donor-to-patient, and the donor had to be present.
Why were blood transfusions unsuccessful before 1901?
As blood could not be stored, transfusions involved the donor being directly attached to the recipient by a tube.
It could often lead to death through infection.
Patients' bodies rejected the new blood because they were given the wrong blood type, as blood groups had yet to be discovered.
How did the discovery of blood groups help in transfusions?
In 1901, Karl Landsteiner discovered the A, B and O blood groups.
In 1902, he discovered another blood group, AB.
In 1907, it was discovered that type O blood was 'universal' and could safely be given to anyone.
What was the impact of blood transfusions?
They could be used in surgery.
They could help patients suffering from blood disorders such as anaemia or leukaemia.
They could be used to help people with liver problems, such as jaundice.
What is a magic bullet?
A magic bullet is a chemical compound that will kill a specific germ without harming other cells.
Who discovered the magic bullet?
Paul Ehrlich worked with Robert Koch, Emil von Behring and Sahachiro Hata. He is known for discovering the first 'magicbullet'.
How did Paul Ehrlich discover the first magic bullet?
In 1900, he suggested some chemicals might be able to kill specific germs.
In 1909, Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata discovered the compound Salvarsan 606, which could kill the syphilis germ.
What was the first magic bullet?
The first magic bullet was Salvarsan 606
What was the impact of the discovery of magic bullets?
The discovery of magic bullets marked the birth of the modern pharmaceutical industry.
In 1932, Gerhard Domagk discovered that blood poisoning could be cured using Prontosil.
In 1935, French and Italian scientists at the Pasteur Institute in Paris discovered bacteriostatic antibiotics based on how Prontosil affected the body. They had realised that bacteria in the body could not multiply because of Prontosil.
What was Prontosil?
Prontosil is a chemical used to make a red dye that contains sulphonamide. It was found to be the 'magic bullet' that killed the streptococcus infection.
When was Prontosil discovered?
1932
What was Prontosil used for?
It was found to be effective in curing puerperal fever in new mothers.
The main ingredient, sulphonamide, was developed to treat pneumonia, scarlet fever and meningitis.
Who was Alexander Fleming?
Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish scientist, who discovered the antibiotic properties of penicillin in 1928.
How did Fleming discover penicillin?
In 1928, Fleming accidentally left some staphylococcus bacteria on a culture plate in his lab. After two weeks he noticed that penicillium notatum (a green mould) had stopped the bacteria from growing.
What problems did Fleming face?
It was difficult to grow enough penicillium (the fungus) for effective research.
Penicillin appeared to take time to have an effect, and its effectiveness was limited when mixed with blood.
Fleming was unable to get funding for more research.
When was penicillin discovered?
1928
Who developed Fleming's research on penicillin?
In 1939, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain
How did Florey and Chain test penicillin?
In 1940, their first tests were on mice, which recovered from streptococci with penicillin.
In 1941, their first human subject was a policeman with septicaemia. The penicillin helped, but there was not enough to cure him and he died.
They developed penicillin to treat children, as a smaller dose was needed.
Who funded the development of penicillin?
Americans were initially responsible for funding the large-scale production of penicillin
Why was it possible to mass-produce penicillin?
individuals
technology
The development of techniques to grow and observe germs helped scientists discover antibiotics.
institutions
Who was Marie Curie?
Marie Curie was a Polish chemist who was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1903. She worked on radioactive elements, and died of radiation exposure.
What discoveries did Marie Curie make?
She found two new radioactive elements, polonium and radium, in 1898.
She discovered that radiation could be used to shrink tumours.
What did Marie Curie do in the First World War?
She put her research into a bank, and spent the First World War building mobile X-rays in cars and portable X-rays for base hospitals.
She trained over 150 female friends and volunteers on how to drive and use the X-rays. They then drove these radiological cars, known as 'little Curies', around the Western Front to help the war effort.
When was the X-ray machine invented?
The X-ray machine was invented in 1895. The X-ray machine was very quickly put to use and was being used in London hospitals by 1896.
How could X-rays assist in medical treatment?
They could show broken bones so they could be set properly.
They could show where bullets or other foreign objects were lodged in the body.
They could be used to identify the shadow on a lung that indicated tuberculosis.
They could be used to show internal organs if the patient swallowed something that showed up on the X-ray.
How was DNA discovered?
DNA had already been discovered by scientists in the late 1800s, but in 1953 scientists James Watson and Francis Crick discovered its doublehelix structure which allowed later scientists to understand genetic diseases.
How did scientists learn about DNA?
The Human Genome Project was set up in 1990 to better understand human DNA. Teams of scientists mapped all the genes in DNA to understand the effect each one had on the body.
What was the Human Genome Project?
The Human Genome Project involved an international team of scientists working together to decode the human genome
When was the Human Genome Project?
The Human Genome Project lasted from 1990 to 2003
Who set up the Human Genome Project?
James Watson
How has the Human Genome Project been used to treat illness and disease?
A gene was identified that is sometimes present in breast cancer sufferers. People can now be tested to see whether they carry that gene.
It has been used to reverse mutations that cause blindness.
It has been used to make some cells resistant to HIV
What are the different types of new technology in medicine used for?
Various monitors can be used to check a patient's blood pressure, oxygen levels, and heart rate.
using endoscopes
MRI scanning and CT scanning
IVF
Dialysis machines
How do people prevent disease in the modern day?
The government has taken a much larger role in public health and the prevention of disease since the 1900s, especially after the establishment of the NHS in 1948.
What types of prevention were used in the 20th century?
Laws that help to provide a healthy environment for us to live in
Lifestyle campaigns
Quarantine measures
What laws were introduced for prevention in the 20th century?
The government has passed many laws that help to keep our environment safe and healthy. A good example of this is the Clean Air Acts, passed in 1956 and 1968, to reduce smog and pollution.
What campaigns were introduced for prevention in the 20th and 21st centuries?
Advertising: campaigns have included those on the dangers of smoking, binge drinking, salt, sugar, unprotected sex, and drug use.
Initiatives: healthy eating has been encouraged through initiatives such as Change4Life.
Events: Stoptober and other events have been used to support and encourage people to stop smoking.
What is the impact of lung cancer?
Lung cancer causes the most cancer deaths. It is the second most common cancer in the UK.
How much does lung cancer cost the NHS?
According to the government's own figures, each lungcancer patient costs the NHS more than £9,000 a year.