essay plans

• How accurate is it to say that widespread political terror was a constant feature from 1921-1953?


  1) Economy and agriculture =

  -collectivisation was a political policy driven by terror

  -liquidation of the kulaks ;1.5 million peasants sent to concentration camps

  -60 million sheep and goats killed , grain production feel 1928-35

  -Stalin's terror led to the purges of industrial managers and planners ;Gosplan attacked so much couldn't finish 3rd plan

  -managers had to lie about production to meet targets in fear of consequences

  
  

  2) Culturally =

  -Stalin introduced Socialist Realism, end of Polekult and avent grande during 1920's

  -realistic, traditional art for the population to understand

  -used terror to implement his policies

  -the party had gained control of artist using political terror to force support for socialist realism

  -used terror agaisnst Islam; settting targets for no. of people from ethnic groups he wanted purged

  -he closed many churches after they helped oppose collectivisation

  
  

  3) Political terror within the government =

  -1921 Lenin used secret police against Krondstadt sailors (meant to be loyal communists)

  -Lenin also used terror to shut down constitute assembly, stop all other political parties and destroy democracy

  -Red terror , Checka created 1917

  -Lenin set precedent that party needed to be protected with terror

  -1930's Great Terror = destroyed alll potential opponents and discredited them all, ruled by terror, 2 million dead

  -led to new emergence of communist who were loyal to him

  -show trials vitally important - set precedent about his regime

  -totalitarian regime as he used NKVD to use terror against anyone, constant feature throughout this period
• How far do you agree the government faced severe economical and political challenges 1917-1928?


  1) Economic challenges =

  -backwards economy with 80% peasant populatin

  -very little industry ; only 2.4/140 million people worked in a large factory

  -introduction of communism

  -state capitalism introduced and was unpopular as too much like capitalism

  -civil war was a huge problems for the economy

  -war communism introduced as grain needed for Red army, intense labour discipline and the abolition of private trade

  -highly unpopular and agriculture production fell, industrial workforce halfed from 1917-1921

  -mass poverty with 1921 harvest 46% of 1913

  
  

  2) Political crisis =

  - some popular support but not full support, Land reforms popular

  -constitute assembly shut down after one day

  -civil war led to huge rebellions and a deepening political crisis

  -1921 Krondstadt rebellion

  -1921 Tambov rebellion against communist

  -Lenin introduced the ban on factions and created a one party sate in order to stop political challenges

  -Stalin gained control after Lenin through extensive use of patronage and creating ideology, he destroyed the authority of his opponents

  
  

  3) Economic Challenges post 1921 =

  -reversed some communist policies, introducing NEP

  -took a step back in order to create some political stability

  -led gto industrial growth by 1926 industrial production had returned to 1913 levels

  -corruption and inequality 'NEPmen'

  -NEP began to fail in 1927-28 agriculture production falling

  -NEP was highly controversial in the party and faced much criticism.]-still unable to create significatn economic gorwth

  -grain production still lower in 1926 vs 1913

  -'sissors crisis' between farmers incomes and industrial prices
• How far was government control of peoples's lives maintained 1953-1985?


  1) Cultural control

  2) Economic control

  3) Political repression and control

  
  

  1) Khrushchev =

  -renounced terro and stopped using it as a weapon against the party

  -liberalised economy, attempted to reduce centeral planning, hoping to give more power to managers and farmers, divided party in two

  -destalinisation led to some thaws in relation to art

  -some liberalisation in culture and freedom of speech

  -introduced 'popular oversight' to get citiziens to spy on each other

  -although hardline approach to religion ; reversed Stalin's relaxed approach during the war; reintroduced anti relgious properganda and closed re-opended churches

  
  

  2) Brezhnev's policy towards culture =

  -retuned to STalins position on art, show trial of 1966 ' Sinyavsky Daniel' sent a clear message

  -he was forced to use psychiatric wards for dissidents due to international pressure

  -Prague Spring harden his cultural views and saw liberalisation as a danger

  -but this all semi-failed as by 1980's huge underground thriving dissident art scene

  -he also stopped overt anti-religion camping and promoted atheism, 1968 Institute for Scientific atheism

  -he had little impact on region; stable 20% had religious beliefs

  
  

  3)Brezhnevs's political control =

  -Andropov made KGB highly efficient and increased surveillance on dissidents

  -strong focus on prevention vs repression

  -wanted to maximise control through minimal violence due to international pressure

  -'brezhnev Constitution' 1977 highlighted superiority of party over state

  -stability of cadres, with little/no reforms

  corruption was huge within the party
• How successful were economic policies in promoting economic development 1917-1941?


  1)Heavy industry =

  -initially war communism was a disaster for industry and NEP allowed it to restore but didn't stimulate growth

  -5 year plans had huge focus on heavy industry

  -9x electricity growth and 4x iron in Stalin's plans

  -hoped strong heavy industry would help promote development in other sectors

  -extensive growth = factories built as economy expands

  
  

  2) Consumer goods =

  -2% investment led to huge shortages and low living standards

  - lack of technology and capitol equipment further extended this problem

  -targets were often falsified and quality of goods were awful

  -consumer goods did double in production during 2rd plan

  -poor planning as planners underestimated demand for consumer goods

  
  

  3) Agriculture policies =

  -war communism destroyed agriculture sector

  -NEP led to some recovery of gran production due to capitalist nature

  -collectivisation began in 1928 and almost all farms by 1941

  -initially was hugely unpopular due to the liquidation of the kulaks which put 1.5 million peasants in concentration camps

  -introduction of central planning = failure as they didn't have local knowledge and led to huge inefficiencies

  
  

  4) Rearmament =

  -successful rearmament during WW2

  -1/3 of budget spent on rearmament

  -9 aircraft factories built in 3rd 5 year plan

  -shortages of quality materials such as steel held up production

  
  

  5) Transport improvements =

  -Moscow metro opened 1934

  5

  -Moscow Volga Canal 1932

  -help improve productivity across the country

  -Stakonvite movement helped improve productivity in the 1930's
• How far was the Soviet economy in decline from 1964-85 due to failure of leadership?


  1) Failed reforms =

  -Stability of cadres and gerentocracy meant very little actual reforms ever went through

  -reversed Khrushchev reforms and reintroduced Stalinist methods

  -Kosygin reforms almost implemented but failed

  -economy need reforms to make it more efficient

  -his lack of reforms increased the growing problems with growth rate of 2% in the 70's vs world average of 6.2%

  -failed to try improve productivity and stimulate intensive growth

  -high oil prices in the 70's allowed him to imporve standards of living slightly and keep importing huge amounts of grain

  
  

  2) Corruption and high military spending =

  -military spending increased to 13% of GDP by 1970 and he successful gained nuclear parity at a huge investment opportunity cost

  -

  
  

  3) Long term economic and political problems =
• How accurate s it to say that Stalinist features persisted in the period 1953-64?


  1) Desalinisation =

  -Secret speech 1956 denounced Stalin's government and aspects of his government

  -democratisation 1961 16 year fixed term for Central Committee members

  -end of terror within party and society

  -released 12,00 political prisoners and cult of personality ended

  
  

  2) Stalin's features =

  -continual high military spending

  -collectivisation continued and central planning

  -Brezhnev revived of personality

  -Stalin's crimes never publicised

  -Brezhnev revived many of his Stalin's policies

  
  

  3) Drastic reforms =

  -decentralisation = 105 new local councils given planning over central planners

  -V.L.S. + Corn campaign; initial strong growth but unsustainable

  -Light industry 7 year plan = more consumer goods
• How accurate was Stalin's economic policies modernised the economy 1928-1953?


  1) 5 year plans =

  -mass industrialisation ; 9x electricity ; 1930's electrification of the backwards economy

  -improvements in heavy industry; main focus , 4x coal

  -rearmament was highly successful - 9 aircraft factories

  -peasant, backwards economy

  
  

  2) Collectivisation =

  -meant to be more efficient with larger farms = economics of scale

  -communist ideology; private property liquidated

  -destruction of Soviet farming; 60 million sheep killed, huge famine

  -central planners didn't have correct local knowledge and therefore it was very inefficient

  -grain production fell from 1928-1934

  
  

  3) Living standards=

  -black market growth

  -huge shortages of consumer goods; such as clothes and shoes

  -poor planning and production techniques

  -rationing managed and during 4th plan consumer goods doubled
• How far 1964-85 did the government act as totalitarian government?


  1) Stability of Cadres =

  -no reforms or changes, c=government stayed the same

  -no elections, no democracy

  -population had no say in any gov policy

  -huge corruption polluted the gov

  -central planning of all industries

  -collectivisation was still major agriculture policy

  
  

  2) Social Contract =

  -attempts to raise living standards and improve support

  -increased welfare payments and subsidies; attempted to gain support

  -expansion of the welfare state; due to high oil prices

  
  

  3) Cultural constraints =

  -cultural conservatism = Sinyvasvky Daniel trials example show trial

  -Yezhov used less openly repressive policies; due to international pressure

  -government used emigration or psychiatric wards (7000 dissidents in them)

  -Prague Spring 1968 led to the hardening further hardening of many of these views

  -dissident artists through 'Moscow Conceptualist's' in the 70's

  
  

  -dissidence was growing
• How accurate is it to say that the government were hostile to religious groups 1921-1964?


  1) Lenin and early reforms =

  -saw Churvh as an enemy to the revolution

  -introduced Living Church which attepted to split up the Orthodox church

  -very hostile towards Islam = claimed they encourage crimes

  -closed many mosques and discouraged pilgrams

  -opened anti-islamic musems

  -Tikhon (head of Orthodox church) was placed under house arrest in 1922
• How convincing that the USSR collapsed because of Gorbchev's policy errors?


  1) Gorbachev's reform failures =

  -Perostroika failed to stimulate economy, introduced some market forces but failed to function

  -Law of co-operatives in 1988 by 1990 200,000 co-operatives

  -but initial ' price capping' meant these goods wernt economical and later gov subsidies meant private goods were too expensive

  -high wages caused inflation and printing money

  -failure to reform agriculture sector, no effective distrubtion of grain led to food shortages

  -government revue had fallen significantly due to alcohol ban

  -Glasnost led to large scale dissidence

  -party reavled all the problems of the state in the late 1980's which shocked citizens

  -huge criticism against Gorbachev and the party

  -led to huge political instability

  
  

  2) System was unreformable=

  -Brezhnev hadn't reformed anything for 20 years, the change was huge and very quick

  -Gosplan had been very ineffective and wasteful for so many years ; 20% of tractors wasted yearly in 1980's

  -labour productivity was so low, due to a lack of capitol equipment

  -lack of incentives to innovate and increase productivity

  -failing state that had huge corruption problems and alcohol problems

  -by 1991 government had lost power to Yeltsin

  -growth rate below 1% in 1980's

  -centralisation had been a huge problem as it meant agriculture couldn't fully modernise

  -his reforms revealed all these problems and the reforms failed to fix them

  -lack of price mechanism in markets

  
  

  3) Growth of nationalism=

  -grown under Brezhnev as he gave republics more control ; less emphasis on Russian language

  -growing environmental problems had caused problems

  -although glasnost and democratisation had caused major problems

  -1989 elections gave chance for nationalist to campaign for independence

  -this was a major reform and it significantly weakened the party

  -the past significantly undermined the authority of the party

  -anti-corruption campaign led to a huge amount of local party leaders purged but this undermined the party

  Tbsili massacre of Georgian nationalist led to growth of dissidence
• How accurate is it to say that the government relied wholly on secret police to retain power 1928-85?


  1) Secret police =

  1930's Great terror = killed 3 million people

  -terror critical in Stalin's power

  -Yezhov turned NKVD in bloodbath, attacked all aspects of daily life

  -10% of male population arrested in 1930's

  -Beria continued this persecution after was, 'Lenningrad Affair' 1949

  -Khrushchev renounced terror and freed some political prisoners-it was less of an important role although maintained significance

  -Brezhnev used Andropov to re-use terror although on a much smaller scale

  -show trial in 1966 Sinyvsky-Daniel trial which revived Stalinist methods

  -although focus on more discrete uses of terror, emigration and psychiatric institutions due to international pressure

  
  

  2) Economic and political support =

  -Stalin led raid industrialisation and electrification in the 1930's through 5 year plans; enough output to beat the Geramsn in WW2

  -collectivisation introduced true communist agriculture policy, although inefficient and unpopular

  -1950's the USSR had the fasted growing growth rates in the world

  -7 year plan led to 60% increase in consumer goods and lack of repression

  -Khrushchev introduced VLS which initially improved agriculture production but remained inefficient due to the planners

  -Social contract under Brezhnev attempted to openly improved support for regime, with some improvements in standard of living

  -due to oil crisis, welfare spending rose but huge economic stagnation

  
  

  3) Propaganda =

  -cult of personalty vital for Stalin's power

  -gave him God like figure and allowed him to gain control of the whole population

  -Genalissimo during WW2 showing him as a great war leader

  -renounced under Khrushchev; wanted to move away from cult of Stalin

  -Khrushchev damaged for taking credit of VLS that later failure

  -Brezhnev's cult of personality was implausible form the beginning and became counter productive

  -Brezhnev was openly mocked for his claims, his cult inspired cynicism

  -in the early years the cult had been an important way for the communist to gain control over the population
• How did education develop from 1917-1985?


  -32% of the population literate in 1914

  
  

  1) NEP =

  -funding for schools slashed and reintroduction of fees

  -Lenin pushed literacy campaign during civil war

  -literacy rates improved to 55% in 1928

  -government had set up libraries and reading rooms in factories to educate works in 1925

  
  

  2) Stalin = 'Geat Turn'

  -from 1930 ensured primary schooling was compulsory during first 5 year plan

  -3 million Komosol members sent to villages to help teach literacy;'cultural soldiers'

  -under equipped and poorly supported

  -but happened during collectivisation and led to huge backlash against them; 40% of teachers physically attacked

  -by 1939 94% of citizens literate

  -discipline was reemphasised in schools as Stalin wanted it to emulate workforce

  -encouraged to emulate Stakhanov

  -primary education increase from 60% to 956% 1928-32

  -introduction of Labour Reserve Schools in 1940 to train men to specialise in an industry, very important in reconstruction during 4th 5 year plan

  -university enroulment had increased significantly 4.5x from 1927-1940

  
  

  3) Khrushchev =

  -reintroduced polytechnic education and more pratical training -20% of ciriculum time spent on practical training

  -doubled number of schools in towns and cities

  -number of teachers rose form 1.5 - 2.2 million in 1964

  -1958 reforms directed schools further in direction of polytechnic education and broader destalinisation

  -his reforms were unpopular and a failure as parents wanted their child to have academic education

  -he had alot of faith in Komosol and keen to involve them

  
  

  3) Brezhnev =

  -traditional teaching and curriculum but expanded educational provisions; increased peasant participation (textbooks free and free hot meals)

  -repealed all of Khrushchev's reforms and re-focused on academic education

  -curriculum larger unchanged , small scale reforms

  -expansionary of secondary school slowed but continual increase in level of qualifications

  -by 1990 19% of the population had a degree; real success
• How did economic priorities change form 1928-1965?


  1)Heavy industry =

  -strong focus throughout the 5 year plans

  -industrialising the country

  -5x coal and iron output

  -huge investment into expanding heavy industry, almost all investment

  -mass urbanisation, aimed to use central planning

  -inefficient central planning throughout Stalin's regime

  -rapid rearmament, 9x aircraft factories in 1937-39

  -consumer goods forgone in 3rd plan for rearmament, v successful scale up

  -by 1941 1/3 of gov budget on rearmament

  -post war 5 yr plan again focused on heavy industry reconstruction; rapid growth, 88% investment into heavy industry

  -fastest growing economy in the 50's

  -Khrushchev's 7 year plan less focused on heavy industry but aimed to reduce central planning to increase efficiency, divided party in two

  
  

  2) Consumer goods, light industry =

  -2rd 5 year plan had more focus on it but still not enough

  -major shortages throughout Stain's tenure

  -huge shortages during rearmament as consumer goods forgone instead for heavy industry

  -Khrushchev remained an emphasis on consumer goods and light industry ; 60% increase in consumer goods during 7 year plan

  -focus on chemical industry as hoped to increase agriculture production and industry

  -reduced central planning, attempting market based policies to improve efficiency

  -quality of goods maintained poor

  
  

  3) Agriculture =

  -Stalin's collectivisation was rapid and aggressive

  -grain output fell from 1928-33

  -emphasis on collectivise as strong communist ideology

  -efficiency was poor on USSR farms but helped feed army during war

  -Khrushchev reformed agriculture policies, hoping to give more incentives to managers, reforms

  -Virgin land scheme and corn campaign while initial success were failures

  -although were big reforms to the agriculture sector

  
  

  -key priority of industrialisation didn't change, strong focus throughout

  -high military spending throughout period

  -while light industry developed under Khrushchev plans often failed due to dis-organisation

  -consumer goods were often poor quality and priorities never really changed
• How accurate is it to say that the government were hostile to religious groups 1921-64?


  1) Lenin and early reforms = highly hostile

  -saw Church as an enemy to the revolution and aggressive during civil war

  -1917 decree on Land

  -1918 Checka order and completed the killing of the most popular Orthodox priests

  -although took more subtle approach after civil war, introduced Living Church to reduce Orthodox church dominance and its national structure

  -Tikhon placed under house arrest 1922 - Head of Orthodox church

  -very hostile to Islam, had strong control in Asian regions

  -closed mosques and opened anti-Islamic museums

  
  

  2) Stalin view was driven by his other policies, pragmatic approach =

  -during collectivisation he closed many churches due to their opposition

  -NKVD heavily in the Asian regions against Islam to eliminate Islam

  -during war Stalin created an alliance with the church; helped link church to national identity

  -help soldiers find comfort in concept of God

  -414 churches reopened, led to growth

  -Orthodox senior figure claimed Stalin's 'Gods chosen leader'

  
  

  3) Khrushchev =

  -much more hardliner approach

  -closed all the churches opened in the war, anti-religious propaganda resumed

  -space race attempted to disprove religion ; no heaven

  -propaganda focused on women ;3/4 of church goers influence on children

  -KGB shut 3000 Orthodox churches shut form 1958-64
• How was Stalin's elimination of his opponents responsible for his power in the USSR?


  1) Purges and the Great terror=

  -eliminated all this rivals = 10 million dead

  -purged all of government and red army

  -instilled fear around him and stopped any potential opponents

  -Kirov was main opponent

  -new generation of communist who were fully loyal to Stalin

  -Stalin became the only source of authority

  -killed all previous opponents in the 1920's

  
  

  2) Cult of personality therefore some popular support =

  -'Lenin of today', natural leader, rewrote history

  -emphasised Stalin's legitimacy and gave him power

  -'vozhd' = leader, celebrated

  -Generalissimo = military figure

  -this cult help sustain his power and legitimacy and people couldn't exist without him

  -Stalin's was never blamed for low living standards, other reasons

  
  

  3) Government structure =

  -'Lenin enrolment' form 1924 had allowed Stalin to fill the party with supporters loyal to him; 100,000 party new members

  -Stalin also had an 'approved list' for Central committee

  -extensive patronage, many in the party felt they owed alot to Stalin

  -he was also clever make make the party vs state fight instead of against him; put rivals in similar position on either side

  -clever way to stop tension building against him
• How far did the role of the secret police change from 1953-85?


  1) Khrushchev = renounced using it

  -he released/ rehabilitated thousands of political prisoners ; 51,000 prisoners freed after the secret speech

  -power restricted due to Article 70

  -Beria was arrested and executed which was significant as end of terror as a political weapon

  -used 'popular oversight' as a new less violent means of social control

  -however he used psychiatric wards for dissidence's

  -liberalisation of culture , desalinisation

  
  

  2)Monitoring dissidence and anti-soviet behaviour=

  -forced to become less public due to international outrage from Sakhavrov and Solzhentisyn case

  -show trials were no longer a feasible way of distilling fear

  - Andropov wanted maximum control through minimum terror

  -Andropov took a forward looking step to stop dissidence and worked on prevention

  -from 1972 KGB began to issue warnings and used surveillance more, around 70,000 received warnings

  -Law and order campaign 1979 stricter policies in anticipation of Olympics 1980

  -Andropov introduced anti-corruption, anti-alcohol and operation trawl

  
  

  3)Use of terror from 1964 =

  -while terror decreased it was still an important factor

  -Sinyavsky-Daniel trial = revived Stalinsit methods

  -terror remained prevalent = dissidence sacked, exiled or sent to psychiatric ward

  -huge expansion in psychiatric wards

  -KGB turned into highly effective, efficient force

  -high profile dissidents forced to emigrate

  no. of dissidents imprisoned 171-528 1965-69
• How accurate is it to say that communism failed to created sexual equality 1917-1953?


  1) Women at work =

  -women joined the industrial labour force from 3 to 13 million from 1928 to 1940

  -41% of workers in heavy industry by 1940

  -significant pay differentials 60/65% of men's pay

  by 1945 800,000 women played combat roles,

  -war time equality short lived = demobilised post war

  -'triple shift' for women on farms = three roles

  
  

  2) Women in politics =

  -consistently under-represented

  -1918 5% of delegates to party congress were women

  -in 1928 only 12% of party members

  -expected to play home-making role during 1930's

  -rise in equality but failed in politics

  
  

  3) Family and marriage liberalisation =

  -liberalised and equality during 1920's

  -Zhentodel introduced co-education

  -1919 legal rights to equal pay and voting rights

  -postcard divorces 1926 = emancipation of women

  -Great retreat 1936 = turned much more conservative (increase birth rates and cut divorce)

  -abortion criminalised, contraception banned and divorce made difficult

  -Stalin's idea that a stable family life was necessary for a successful society
• How important were Khrushchev's failed policies responsible for economic problems = 1964-82?


  1) Khrushchev'a policy failure =

  -counterproductive

  -failure of Virgin Land Scheme in long run due to inefficient planning

  -agriculture remained highly inefficient

  -complete lack of co-ordination of the plan, asymmetric information

  -economic growth damaged by destroying central co-ordination of the plan

  -economy not made to produce consumer goods, targets were set on production not consumer

  -quality of consumer goods was dreadful, useless and often affordable

  
  

  2) Long term problems =

  -economy couldn't produce 'intensive growth'

  -unable to improve productivity of the workforce

  -problems with central planning continued = Gosplan didn't have enough knowledge about agriculture land or production lines

  -planners were inefficient as they failed to understand was consumers wanted

  -economy was always focused on quantity over quality

  -lack of western technological influence, therefore capitol equipment

  -Khrushchev's reforms were too quick and too dis-organised therefore they got reversed

  -2% growth in 1970's

  -lack of innovation

  
  

  3) Military spending and high welfare =

  -cold war forced high spending on military 11% of GDP in 1964

  -space race was also a strain on the economy

  -drain on the economy

  -communism meant large welfare payments in order to gain support

  -this limited investment throughout Brezhnev's period which stopped economic growth

  -lack of government spending on industry throughout Brezhnev's era
• How accurate is it to say the government relied wholly on the secret police to retain power 1928-85?


  1) Secret police =

  -1930's 'Great Terror' = 3 million dead

  -eliminated all opponents, Yezhov transformed NKVD and used terror in every aspect of daily life

  -'Yezhov bloodbath' = 10% of male population arrested

  -Beria continued persecution after the war = Leningrad affair

  -Khrushchev renounced the use of terr and organised rehabilitation of political prisoners

  -although he did shut down all the churches reopened in the war

  -Andropov = achieved maximum control through minimum terror

  -used mainly psychiatric wards and emigration

  
  

  2) Popular support for policies =

  -full employment through the 1930's with electrification

  -rapid industrialisation of heavy industry

  -reconstruction post war, people became normalised

  -Khrushchev's 7 year plan = 60% increase in consumer goods and more focus on living standards

  -farms incomes rose 400% under Khrushchev

  -Brezhnev led formal social contract with some improvements to living standards

  -focused on housing and healthcare

  -funded by oil crisis living standards did improve

  
  

  3) Propaganda =

  -cult of personality under Stalin = God like figure

  -Lenin's follower; used Socialist Realism

  -helped build strong following around him

  -generalissimo during WW2

  -Khrushchev restarted some cult although it was far less extreme

  -didn't go well with de-Stalinistisation

  - Brezhnev attempted to start a cult although it was counter-productive and led to people mocking him