Exam revision: Learning

• Theories of learning introduction

  Learning definition⇒ commonly described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

  • Learning is an ongoing process throughout our lives, enabling us to adapt and cope in an ever-changing world
  • Learning can occur intentionally or unintentionally
  • Learning can be active or passive
• Classical conditioning (Pavlov)


  Refers to the type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli. Learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce.
• Three-phase model of classical conditioning


  1. Before conditioning

  2. During conditioning

  3. After conditioning
• Key elements of classical conditioning


  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
  • Unconditioned response (UCR)
  • Neutral stimulus (NS)
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS)
  • Conditioned response (CR)
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)


  Any stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring, automatic stimulus (e.g. Meat powder)
• Unconditioned response (UCR)


  The response that occurs naturally/automatically when the UCS is presented. It is a reflexive, involuntary response (e.g. The meat powder (UCS) causes salivation (UCR))
• Neutral stimulus (NS)


  Any stimulus that does not normally produce any response (e.g. a desk or a pen)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)


  The stimulus that was 'neutral' at the start now elicits the same response that was caused by the UCS
• Conditioned response (CR)


  The learnt response that is produced by the CS. The CR occurs after the NS has been associated with the UCS and has become the CS (e.g. the salivation of the dog)
• How to write about classical conditioning in WACE


  1. Identify the UCS and UCR

  2. Pair the NS with the UCS repeatedly

  3. The NS becomes the CS and evokes the same response as the UCR
• Classical conditioning


  1. NS (neutral stimulus) does not evoke any response

  2. UCS (unconditioned stimulus) evokes an involuntary physiological response (Blinking, vomiting, fear, salivation)
• Extinction


  The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented
• Extinction


  • Occurs when a CS no longer produces the CR
  • Variation between individuals in the rate of extinction
• Stimulus generalisation


  The tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the original CS to produce a response similar to the CR
• Stimulus generalisation


  • The greater the similarity between the stimuli, the greater the chance that generalisation will occur
• Stimulus discrimination


  It occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS
• Spontaneous recovery


  The re-appearance of a CR when the CS is presented again after a rest period (e.g. when the UCS is not presented for a few trials and then the CR has been extinguished)
• Pavlov's conditioning procedure


  1. Presented the dogs with food (unconditioned stimulus) which caused them to salivate (unconditioned response)

  2. Introduced a bell (neutral stimulus) just before giving the dogs food

  3. Repeated this procedure several times

  4. Presented the bell on its own, and the dogs had learned an association between the bell and the food, resulting in a conditioned response
• Conditioned response


  A response that is learned, also known as a Pavlovian response
• Conditioned stimulus


  A neutral stimulus that has become associated with a response through conditioning
• Behaviourism


  A major school of thought in psychology, based on the principles of classical conditioning
• Therapy techniques based on classical conditioning


  • Systematic desensitisation
  • Exposure therapy
• The Little Albert experiment

  • Demonstrated that emotional responses could be classically conditioned to fear a white rat, which generalised to similar objects
• Educational strategies


  Repetitive learning and rote memorisation, which apply the principles of classical conditioning to reinforce learning
• Marketing and advertising


  Principles from Pavlov's conditioning experiments are often used to build brand recognition and positive associations
• Little Albert


  Nine-month-old boy, remarkably fearless child, scared only by loud noises
• Baseline session


  Test Albert's reactions to neutral stimuli
• Conditioning sessions


  Albert subjected to 7 pairings of a white rat followed by the startling sound of a steel bar being struck with a hammer
• After 7 pairings of the rat and noise

  Albert reacted with crying and avoidance when the rat was presented without the loud noise
• By the end of the second conditioning session, when Albert was shown the rat, he reportedly cried and "Began to crawl away so rapidly that he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table"
• Watson and Rayner interpreted these reactions as evidence of fear conditioning
• This fear began to fade as time went on, however, the association could be renewed by repeating the original procedure a few times
• Neutral Stimulus (NS)


  Stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest (the white laboratory rat)
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)


  Stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning (the loud, frightening noise)
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)


  Natural response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is presented (Albert's fear response to the loud noise, crying and showing distress)
• Conditioning process


  Presenting the rat (NS) to Albert, and then making a loud noise (UCS) while he was interacting with the rat, repeatedly
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)


  Previously Neutral Stimulus (the rat) that now elicits the fear response even without the presence of the loud noise
• Conditioned Response (CR)


  Learned response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now the conditioned stimulus (Albert's fear of the rat)
• Albert's fear generalised to other stimuli that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Santa mask (stimulus generalisation)
• Classical conditioning plays a central role in the development of fears and associations. Some phobias may be due at least in part to classical conditioning