Psychopathology

• One definition of abnormality is deviation from social norms. This is when a person behaves in a way that is outside of what we would expect. This can either be explicit (the law) or implicit (a social norm)
• An example of abnormality is antisocial personality disorder. A person with it might be impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible. This fits the definition of abnormality as it means the person does not conform to our moral standards.
• Another definition of abnormality is failure to function adequately. This is characterised by suffering, maladaptiveness, observer discomfort, unpredictability and irrationality.
• An example of failure to function adequately could be someone with schizophrenia. Because of their hallucinations they may suffer themselves and also cause discomfort to any observers because of their odd behaviour.
• Issues with deviation from social norms are issues with cultural and temporal validity and ethical implications.
• A strength of ffa is that it takes individual difference into account. A weakness is issues with validity due to diagnosis bias.
• The last definition of abnormality is statistical infrequency. Any behaviour that is more than 2 standard deviations away from the mean score is seen as abnormal. For example, those with an IQ below 70 (2%) are seen as abnormal and diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder.
• A strength of statistical infrequency is that it is objective and reliable. A weakness is that it may miss individuals that need diagnosis
• Another definition of abnormality is deviation from ideal mental health. Ideal mental health is defined as positive attitudes toward the self, self-actualisation of one's potential, resistance to stress, personal autonomy, accurate perception of reality and adapting to the environment.
• A strength of deviation from ideal mental health is it gives individuals something positive to aim for. A weakness is that it lacks validity as many people without mental illness don't meet this criteria.
• The behavioural characteristics of a phobia include behavioural: panic, avoidance, emotional: anxiety, fear, cognitive: selective attention, irrational beliefs.
• The behavioural explanation of phobias suggests that phobias are learned through conditioning. The two process model explains that the phobias is acquired via classical conditioning and maintained via operant conditioning.
• Watson and Rayner did an experiment with little Albert on how phobias are acquired. They found support for the idea of classical conditioning as they showed him a white rat alongside a loud noise which created a fear response to the rat on its own.
• The behavioural explanation of phobias is weak as it ignores biology.
• Systematic desensitisation is based on the belief that abnormality can be removed through counterconditioning. It uses a concept called reciprocal inhibition which is where a person learns to feel relaxed in the presence of a phobic stimulus. This works because it is impossible to feel fear and relaxation at the same time
• There are three stages to systematic desensitisation: the fear hierarchy, relaxation and exposure.
• Gilroy et Al examined 42 patients who had received systematic desensitisation for arachnophobia. Compared to a group that had only had relaxation technique training the therapy group showed less fear.
• A weakness of systematic desensitisation is that it is not appropriate for all phobias, such as those that have an underlying evolutionary survival component
• Scientific support for flooding: in 1970 a young girl who was afraid of cars was driven around for 4 hours. At first she was hysterical, but she soon calmed down and realised that she was not in danger. This cured her phobia.
• The behavioural characteristics of depression are: low activity levels, disruption to sleep and eating, aggression and self-harm.
• The emotional characteristics of depression are: lowered mood, anger and lowered self-esteem.
• The cognitive characteristics of depression are: poor concentration, focussing on the negative and absolutist or 'black and white' thinking.
• Beck believed that those with depression are biased towards a negative interpretation of the world because they have a negative self-schema. This is developed in childhood through criticism from parents and peers.
• The negative self-schema fuels a negative triad made up of negative views about the world, future and oneself.
• The cognitive approach suggests that negative thinking is caused by cognitive bias. For example, all or none thinking, arbitrary inferences, overgeneralisation, catastrophising, selective abstraction and excessive responsibility.
• Ellis suggested that depression results from irrational thoughts. He used the ABC model to explain their effects on our behaviour and emotional state. It goes as follows: Activating event, Beliefs (i.e. mustabatory thinking), and consequences.
• The behavioural characteristics of OCD are compulsions such as excessive hand washing, and avoidance of anything that triggers anxiety.
• The emotional characteristics of OCD are anxiety and distress, accompanying depression, guilt and disgust.
• The cognitive features of OCD are obsessive thoughts, cognitive strategies and insight into excessive anxiety.
• The biological explanation of OCD suggests that it could be caused by mutated genes, although many different genes are involved in the disorder.
• The candidate genes for OCD are the SERT gene which affects the transport of serotonin and COMT produces higher levels of dopamine.
• PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex of patients with OCD. It is suggested that the heightened activity increases the need to respond to sensory information which results in compulsions.
• Drug therapy can be used to manage OCD symptoms. This is usually done with SSRIs.
• SSRIs increase the amount of serotonin being communicated. When it is released by the presynaptic neuron it travels across a synapse. The neurotransmitter then binds to the receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron. Any leftovers are normally reuptaken but SSRIs prevent this so more serotonin is absorbed.
• An alternative to SSRIs is BZs which increases the levels of GABA, a neurotransmitter which reduces anxiety.