English lang-spoken language

• Grice's Maxims


  • Maxim of quantity (give as much information as is required, but not more)
  • Maxim of quality (do not say what you believe to be false or for which you lack evidence)
  • Maxim of manner (try to make contributions clear, concise and well-organised)
  • Maxim of relation (be relevant and stick to the point)
• Grice recognised that


  • We could choose not to follow a maxim, but that such a choice would be conscious and have an intended consequence, such as violating, opting out, dealing with a clash, or flouting a maxim
• Types of accommodation


  • Downward convergence (toning down accent and register)
  • Upward convergence (attempting to eliminate aspects of regional accent or low register to move closer to received pronunciation)
• Accommodation Theory (Howard Giles)

  When we talk, we adjust our speech to 'accommodate' the person we are addressing, which may result in convergence (moving our style of speech closer to the other person) or divergence (moving our style of speech further apart)
• Politeness strategies (Robin Lakoff)


  Don't impose, give options, and make the receiver feel good
• Off record


  Being indirect - not actually saying what you want, e.g. "it's cold in here, isn't it?" implying the hearer should do something about it
• Negative politeness strategies


  • Saying "excuse me" before asking for something
  • Being pessimistic
  • Giving deference
• Positive politeness strategies


  • Paying them compliments
  • Taking an interest in their wellbeing
  • Paying attention to the other speaker (show interest, sympathy, approval)
  • Seeking agreement
  • Avoiding disagreement
• Face threatening act


  An act that damages the face of the hearer (or the speaker) by acting in opposition to the wants and desires of the other, e.g. insults, disrespect, interrupting, raising sensitive topics
• Face (Brown and Levinson)

  The public self-image that every member [of society] wants to claim for himself, consisting of two related aspects: negative face (the basic claim to freedom of action and freedom from imposition) and positive face (the positive consistent self-image or 'personality' including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)
• Face (Erving Goffman)


  The positive social value a person effectively claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact
• 'Face' is used in everyday speech e.g. 'losing face'
• Five Faces of Formality

  • INTIMATE
  • CASUAL
  • CONSULTATIVE
  • FORMAL
  • FROZEN
• FROZEN


  The face used in very formal situations, such as in court or at weddings, where speech follows a set pattern that will not change
• FORMAL


  The face used in very formal situations, such as in court or at weddings, where speech follows a set pattern that will not change
• CONSULTATIVE


  The face used when talking to people in authority or strangers, where we often have planned what we will say beforehand and would be very careful with our choice of words
• CASUAL


  The face used when talking to wider friends, extended family and associates, where we are still quite relaxed but not completely, and would take care with some words
• INTIMATE


  The most relaxed face of formality, used at home and with very close friends and relatives, where all filters are off and any word could be spoken