PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

• Statistical infrequency

  A behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically

  uncommon or not seen very often in society.A normal distribution curve can be used to represent

  the proportions of the population who share a

  particular characteristic.
• Deviation from social norms

  Society make collective judgements about correct behaviour so if one acts differently they are seen as abnormal
• Failure to function adequately

  A person is considered abnormal if they

  are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life and live independently in society.

  Rosenhan + seligman proposed that some one is not coping if they experience personal distress or behave irrationally
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  Jahoda suggested 6 key features more they are satisfied= healthy, more fail to meet=more abnormal

  1)positive self attitude

  2)resistance to stress

  3)accurate perception of reality

  4)independence

  5)self acualization

  6)environmental mastery
• Phobias

  An extreme fear of an object,situation or activity which is irrational and disproportionate
• Behaviour characteristics of phobias

  Panic

  Avoidance
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  Anxiety and fear

  Unreasonable responses
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  Selective attention to phobic stimulus

  Irrational beliefs
• Behaviour characteristics of depression

  Disruption to sleep and eating Increased or decreased appetite

  Activity levels reduced
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  Poor concentration

  Negative schemas
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  Anger

  Lowered mood
• Behaviour characteristics of OCD

  Compulsions

  Avoidance
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  Anxiety and distress
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  Obsessive thoughts

  Insight into excessive anxiety
• 2 process model

  Mowrer argued that phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by operant conditioning
• Acquisition by classical conditioning

  UCS triggers fear(UCR) response

  NS associated with UCS

  NS becomes CS producing fear(CR)
• Little albert

  Watson and Rayner showed how a fear of rats could be conditioned

  Albert play with white rat(NS), loud sound (UCS)happen behind his ear scaring him(UCR)

  Now showed fear(CR) when see rat(CS)

  Generalised fear to other stimuli:show fear to other white furry objects e.g: santas beard
• Maintenance by operant conditioning

  Avoidance of the phobic stimulus reduces the unpleasant feelings of fear caused by the conditioned stimulus.

  Acts as negative reinforcement (fear removed)which strengthens the avoidance behaviour so the phobia is maintained.
• Systematic desensitisation

  Gradually reduce phobic anxiety through counterconditioning( uses classical conditioning)

  Phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation(new cr)

  Impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other= reciprocal inhibition.
• Anxiety hierarchy

  Patient and therapist list phobic stimuli from least to most terrifying
• Relaxation techniques

  E.g: breathing techniques, meditation

  work through hierarchy

  patient exposed to phobic stimulus in a relaxed state.

  Process is repeated at each step of the hierarchy starting from bottom.

  The treatment is considered successful when they can remain relaxed in situations at the top of the hierarchy.
• Flooding

  Involves immediate and direct exposure to the phobic stimulus

  No option of avoidance behaviour so patient learns phobic stimulus is harmless through exhaustion of fear response (extinction)

  Need informed consent
• Ellis's ABC model

  proposed a three‐stage model to explain how irrational thoughts could lead to depression.

  Activating event -negative event

  Beliefs -about why the event occurred, which may be rational or irrational

  Consequences -activating event triggers irrational beliefs=emotional and behavioural consequences

  Ellis suggested that the source of irrational beliefs lies in mustabatory thinking= thinking that

  certain ideas or assumptions must be true in order for an individual to be happy.
• Beck's cognitive triad

  Beck suggested some are more prone to depression due to faulty information processing-have negative self-schema causing them to interpret all information about themselves in a negative way

  negative self‐schemas maintain the negative triad which is a

  negative view of three key aspects of a person's life which lead to depression;

  self

  world

  future
• CBT

  Aim is for individual with depression to identify and challenge their negative thoughts and beliefs to prevent further negative thinking

  Therapist may also work to encourage the service user to be

  more active and engage in positive behaviour patterns and activities-Behavioural Activation.
• REBT

  Ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy

  Extends ABC model to ABCDE

  Dispute -challenge irrational beliefs

  Effect

  Individual identify previous experiences and activating events, which resulted in irrational beliefs

  The therapist then uses rational confrontation to reduce negative cognitive and emotional symptoms of

  depression.such as:

  Empirical dispute:if there is evidence to support irrational beliefs

  Rational dispute:asking if the negative belief is logical or based

  on common sense
• Genetic explanations of OCD

  *OCD polygenic= caused by many genes - taylor suggested 230

  *Candidate genes specific genes that create vulnerability for OCD -dopamine genes are implicated in OCD

  *Aetiologically heterogeneous=different groups of genes cause OCD in different poeple
• Neural explanations of OCD

  *Neurotransmitter-Low levels of serotonin are associated with abnormal transmission of mood-related information and are

  suggested to be linked to the obsessive thoughts and feelings of anxiety

  *Abnormal brain functions-OCD associated with impaired decision making - due to abnormal functioning of lateral frontal lobes of brain
• Drug therapy - treating OCD

  Aim to increase or decrease the level of neurotransmitters in the brain.
• SSRIs(selective

  serotonin reuptake inhibitors)


  Type of antidepressant drug which prevent the re-

  absorption and breakdown of serotonin

  SSRIs increase the level of serotonin

  available in the synapse by preventing it

  from being reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic

  neuron cell.

  results in more serotonin being received

  by the post-synaptic neuron.
• SSRIs and CBT

  Used together to treat OCD

  Drugs reduces emotional symptoms so can engage with CBT
• Alternatives to SSRIs


  *Tricyclics -same effect as serotonin but more severe side effects

  *SNRIs -(serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor)increase levels of noradrenaline and serotonin