final quiz coverage

• (2) the skeletal muscles which control movement of the bones (voluntary)
• There are three types of muscles:

  (1) smooth muscles which control the internal organs’ movements (involuntary), 
• (3) the cardiac muscles which control the movement of blood in the heart. Smooth muscles and cardiac muscles are unconsciously controlled by the brain, whereas the skeletal muscles are controlled under one’s conscious mind.
• There are muscles which help a person move a limb towards his body called the flexor muscles, while extensor muscles are the ones responsible for limb movement away from the body.
• Each muscle is made up of muscle fibers which consist of myofibrils. These myofibrils are comprised of two kinds of myofilaments- the myosin which is thick, and the actin which is thin. The molecules of these two myofilaments group into sarcomeres.
• Voluntary Movement

  A manifestations of a centrally generated intention to act individual has a goal and that this goal determines movements leading to its achievement. expression of thought through action.
• Lateral Pathway Responsible for voluntary movements

  3 Main Tracts: Lateral Corticalspinal Tract (Distal Muscles) Anterior Corticalspinal Tract (Proximal Muscles) Rubrospinal Tract (Big Muscles)
• Anterior Medial Pathway 4 Main tracts:

  Vestibulospinal Tract (medial/lateral)

  Resticulospinal Tract (pontine/medullary)

  Tectospinal Tract (Head and Eye movement)

  Anterior Cortical Tract (proximal muscles)
• limbic system

  hypothalamus - homeostasis
• limbic system

  thalamus - relays info
• limbic system

  amygdala - emotion
• limbic system

  hippocampus - memory conversion
• Hypothalamus 1. Role in hunger

  NEUROPEPTIDE Y

  DOPAMINE

  PARAVENTICULAR NUCLEUS

  AGOUTI-RELATED PROTEIN

  ENDOCANNIBINOIDS
• • Homeostasis: When the body temperature rises above 98.6°F (37°C), sweat glands are activated to cool the body down. If it drops below this temperature, shivering generates heat to warm the body up.
  • mechanism: Immediate and specific response to maintain a stable internal temperature.
• Homeostasis: After eating, blood glucose levels rise, prompting the pancreas to release insulin, which helps cells absorb glucose and lowers blood glucose levels back to normal

  Mechanism: Regulation is centered on keeping glucose levels within a narrow range through immediate feedback.
• • Homeostasis: The body maintains blood pH around 7.4. If it becomes too acidic or too alkaline, the respiratory and renal systems adjust breathing rate and excrete more or less acid/base to restore balance.
  • Mechanism: Immediate corrections to keep pH within a specific range.
• • Allostasis: Animals prepare for winter by changing fur density, altering metabolic rate, and storing fat. These changes are in anticipation of future environmental conditions.
  • Mechanism: Dynamic adjustments to prepare for predictable seasonal changes.
• • Allostasis: During regular physical training, the body adapts by increasing cardiac output, improving oxygen delivery to muscles, and enhancing overall endurance. This involves changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle metabolism over time.
  • Mechanism: Long-term physiological adaptations to meet increased physical demands.
• • Allostasis: In response to chronic stress, the body adjusts by increasing the production of cortisol and other stress hormones, altering heart rate, and changing immune function to cope with long-term demands.
  • Mechanism: Proactive and adaptive changes over time to manage ongoing stressors.
• 1. Hypothalamus:

  • Function: Regulates sleep-wake cycles through various nuclei, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
  • Key Structures:
  • Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): The primary circadian pacemaker, located in the anterior hypothalamus, which regulates the timing of sleep by responding to light cues.
  • Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus (VLPO): Promotes sleep by inhibiting arousal centers in the brain.
• 1. Brainstem:

  • Function: Plays a crucial role in maintaining wakefulness and transitioning between sleep stages.
  • Key Structures:
  • Reticular Activating System (RAS): A network of neurons that maintain alertness and arousal.
  • Pons: Involved in REM sleep regulation, sending signals to the thalamus and cerebral cortex.
• 1. Thalamus:

  • Function: Acts as a relay station for sensory information and plays a role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
  • Role in Sleep: During sleep, the thalamus helps to block out external stimuli, contributing to a restful state.
• 1. Basal Forebrain:

  • Function: Promotes wakefulness and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.
  • Role in Sleep: Releases acetylcholine, which enhances cortical activity and promotes REM sleep.
• 1. Cerebral Cortex:

  • Function: Involved in higher brain functions, including thought, perception, and voluntary motor actions.
  • Role in Sleep: Active during REM sleep, contributing to the vividness and emotional intensity of dreams.
• 1. Amygdala:

  • Function: Involved in emotional processing.
  • Role in Sleep: Active during REM sleep, particularly during emotionally charged dreams.
• 1. Melatonin:

  • Source: Pineal gland.
  • Function: Regulates sleep-wake cycles by signaling the body that it is time to sleep.
  • Influence: Levels rise in the evening, promoting sleepiness, and decrease in the morning, contributing to wakefulness.
• 1. Cortisol:

  • Source: Adrenal glands.
  • Function: Known as the "stress hormone," it helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, and reduce inflammation.
  • Influence: Levels peak in the early morning, promoting wakefulness and alertness, and decrease throughout the day.
• 1. Adenosine:

  • Source: Produced in the brain as a byproduct of energy consumption.
  • Function: Builds up during wakefulness, creating a pressure to sleep, and decreases during sleep.
  • Influence: High levels promote sleepiness; its breakdown during sleep helps you wake up feeling refreshed.
• 1. Orexin (Hypocretin):

  • Source: Hypothalamus.
  • Function: Promotes wakefulness and regulates arousal, appetite, and energy expenditure.
  • Influence: Deficiency is associated with narcolepsy, a condition characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness.
• 1. Serotonin:

  • Source: Produced in the brainstem and intestines.
  • Function: Involved in mood regulation, appetite, and sleep.
  • Influence: Contributes to the regulation of sleep-wake cycles by modulating the activity of various sleep-related brain structures.
• 1. Norepinephrine:

  • Source: Locus coeruleus in the brainstem.
  • Function: Involved in arousal and alertness.
  • Influence: Levels are high during wakefulness and decrease during REM sleep, facilitating the transition between different sleep stages.