Psychopathology

• The biological approach does not take into account cognitions (thinking) and learning
• OCD- Brain structure


  PET Scans reveal high activity in the orbital prefrontal cortex when carrying out tasks that activate OCD symptoms. This is because the caudate nucleus is designed to supress minor worry signals reaching the thalamus from the frontal lobes (OFC) is damaged = worry circuit. This increased activity also prevents patients from stopping their behaviours.
• ☹️Should be evident in all cases of OCD but it's not


  If everyone has it it's not the cause, doesn't appear in all individuals. Also, because a structure is not active does not mean to say that it does that thing- it is a correlate.

  Finally, underactive could be a result of having OCD for a long time-not the cause.
• Serotonin


  A transmitter which calms us down and stops us from repeating tasks. A chemical neurotransmitter (messenger). Researchers know that OCD is triggered by communication problems between the brain's deeper structures and the front part of the brain. These parts of the brain primarily use serotonin to communicate. SEROTONIN IS NOT AVAILABLE TO CALM OBSESSIONS AND ANXIETY CAUSED BY IT.
• Serotonin AO3


  Hu compared serotonin activity in 169 OCD sufferers and 253 non-sufferers, finding serotonin levels to be lower in the OCD patients which supports the idea of low levels of serotonin being associated with the onset disorder. SSRI's have been found to lower OCD symptoms.
• Genetics


  OCD may be associated with a rare combination of two mutations within the human serotonin transporter gene (hSERT). This causes increased reputake of serotonin in those neuronal synapses. hSERT works too fast and may collect all the serotonin before the next cell has even heard to absorb the transmitter. Decreasing the amount of serotonin available in the synapse for signalling leading to less serotonin being available for neuronal communication.
• AO3 Research into genetics

  Billet- MZ twins (identical) are more than twice as likely than DZ (non identical) twins of suffering.

  Nestadt- found 5x more likely than the general population if a first degree relative suffers.
• AO3 of genetics overall

  Genetic explanations have poor predictive validity as there are too many candidate genes involved. It is difficult to isolate OCD to a specific gene, more likely to be polygenic.

  This gene doesn't just affect OCD>Genetics are unlikely to be useful in explaining the onset of OCD.
• Biological Reductionism


  One weakness of the biological explanation of OCD is that it ignores other factors and is reductionist. e.g the biological approach doesn't take into account cognitions (thinking) and learning. Some psychologists suggest that OCD may be learnt through classical conditioning and maintained through operant stimulus as it is associated w/anxiety and it is maintained through operant conditioning. This causes the person to avoid the stimulus e.g dirt and hand washing
• The Diathesis Stress Model


  A simple link between the candidate gene and OCD is unlikely

  Gene=vulnerability

  Environmental stressor affects whether it develops into anything.
• Systematic desensitisation


  A behavioural therapy for treating anxiety disorders in which the sufferer learns relaxation techniques and then faces a progressive hierarchy of exposure to the objects and situations that cause anxiety.
• Systematic desensitisation


  1st-Relaxation techniques e.g meditation, mental imagery, anti-anxiety drugs (beta blocker) in extreme cases.

  2nd-Hierarchy of anxiety provoking situations

  3rd-Exposure to each stage and then relaxing until at the top of hierarchy.
• Flooding


  Involves going to the worst thing on the hierarchy and exposing the patient to it, taking away the option of avoidance. First relax>full exposure.
• Research findings AO3 flooding

  When exposure starts, anxiety rises however over time the association is broken and anxiety lowers.
• 😊Research to support flooding

  Wolpe used flooding to remove a girls phobia of cars by driving her around for 4 hours until her hysteria was eradicated demonstrating the effectiveness of the treatment, concluding flooding can work on phobias.
• ☹️Does not work on all phobias

  May work on more simple phobias such as cotton wool, however social phobias tend to involve cognitive aspects as it is not just anxiety & avoidance but there are also unpleasant thoughts associated w/the phobia.

  Craske&Barlow- at best 1/5 don't improve>high individual diff

  Not long term & better than before treatment.
• Ost... overall conclusion for flooding

  Found that flooding is a rapid treatment that often delivers rapid, immediate improvements, especially when a patient is encouraged to continue self-directed exposure to feared objects and situations outside of therapy sessions.
• Systematic desensitisation general evaluations

  Suitable for a diverse range of patients

  Better for patients with learning difficulties as it is more gradual and not overwhelming.
• Flooding general evaluations


  So traumatic people won't finish the treatment.

  Ethical issue is consent.

  Patient doesn't know how they will react or feel so cannot properly consent as they have never done it.
• Ellis the ABC Model


  Depressives mistakenly blame external events on their unhappiness but it is infact their interpretation of these events that is to blame for distress.

  Example- speaking about exams = depression?
• Ellis the ABC Model


  Activating agent- irrational thoughts are triggered by events, not the cause.

  B-Irrational belief-Utopianism, life must always be fair, catastrophising, disaster when things don't go well.

  Consequence- triggered by the belief in the cause of irrational B's depression.
• Beck-the cognitive triad


  Negative thoughts & cognitive vulnerability are automatic.

  Negative schemas trigger depressive thoughts.

  Schemas are developed in childhood & continue into adulthood which leads to pessimistic viewpoint of life.