Pre-Finals

• Meta-Ethics


  The branch of ethics that studies the nature of morality
• Moral judgements


  Convey propositions (a statement of judgement) which are "truth bearers"
• Cognitivism


  • Moral judgements convey propositions which are truth bearers
  • Most ethical theories are cognitivist as they contend that right and wrong are matters of fact
• Moral Realism


  The existence of moral facts and the truth are independent of people's thoughts and perceptions. Morality is about facts and not facts about certain subjective judgement.
• Ethical Subjectivism


  The truth of ethical propositions are dependent on the attitudes or standards of a person or group of persons.
• Non-Cognitivism


  • Denies that moral judgements are either true or false
  • Ethical sentences don't convey authentic propositions, hence neither true nor false
• Emotivism


  Moral judgements are mere expressions of our emotions and feelings that cannot be said to be facts
• Universalism


  • Moral facts and principles apply to everybody in all places
  • It is also called moral objectivism that applies to all similarly situated persons regardless of who they are
• Moral Relativism


  • Different moral facts and principles apply to different persons or group of individuals
  • Various cultures have distinct standards of right and wrong that maintains the changes of ethical standards over time within same culture
  • Moral norms are equally true and morals are mere preferences
• Moral Empiricism


  Moral facts are known through observation and experience
• Moral Rationalism


  Moral facts and principles are knowable a priori, relying on reason rather than intuition
• Moral Intuitionism


  Moral truths are knowable by intuition, by immediate, instinctive knowledge without reference to any evidence
• Normative Ethics


  The branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act, morally speaking
• Deontology


  • Ethical system that bases morality on independent moral rules or duties
  • It equates behaving morally with adherence to duties or moral rules and acting immorally with failure to obey them
• Teleology


  • Moral system that determines the moral value of actions by their outcomes or results
  • It deems an action as morally right if its favorable consequences are greater than its adverse outcomes
• Virtue Ethics


  • Emphasize developing good habits of character, and avoiding bad character traits
  • Virtue-based theories give importance to moral education which molds individuals to habitually act in a virtuous manner
  • Virtue ethics describes right actions as those chosen and performed by a suitably virtuous person
• Applied Ethics


  Examines specific, contentious moral issues through philosophical methods to determine the ethically correct actions
• Subfields of Applied Ethics

  • Bioethics
  • Environmental Ethics
  • Business Ethics
  • Sexual Ethics
  • Social Ethics
• Virtue Ethics


  • An action is morally right if it aligns with what a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances
  • Emphasizes cultivating virtuous character traits and avoiding vices
  • Right actions stem from the character of the agent, reflecting the choices of a virtuous individual
• Self-Realizationism


  Moral action and true happiness occur when individuals act in accordance with their nature or ultimate purpose (telos)
• Eudaimonistic Ethics


  Eudaimonia is the highest human good and the ultimate goal of life, often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing"
• Virtue-Based (Aretoic) Ethics


  • Emphasizes the development of good character traits, or virtues, such as courage, temperance, and wisdom
  • More concerned with what kind of person one should become rather than focusing solely on specific actions
• Telos


  The end, goal, or purpose of something
• Virtue as Habit

  Virtues are developed through habitual practice
• Acting in Accordance with Reason

  Virtuous actions are those that align with reason
• Aristotle's ethics emphasize the importance of achieving one's potential and living a life of virtue. Happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal, attainable through the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences.
• Natural Law


  An ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by an authority
• Laws as "rules and measures" for conduct, embodying "rational patterns or forms"
• Aristotle's ethics


  Emphasize the importance of achieving one's potential and living a life of virtue. Happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal, attainable through the habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences. By understanding and acting in line with our telos, we can achieve self-realization and lead fulfilling lives.
• Thomas Aquinas


  Called Angelic Doctor and the Prince of Scholastics. An Italian philosopher and theologian. Influenced by Aristotle. Belief that all actions aim at ends, with happiness as the final end. Happiness involves virtuous activities. Ultimate happiness is not achievable in this life, only in heaven or in beatitude with God.
• Natural Law


  An ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by an authority. Laws as "rules and measures" for conduct, embodying "rational patterns or forms."
• Types of Law


  • Eternal Law
  • Natural Law
  • Human Law
  • Divine Law
• Eternal Law


  God's rational plan for all creation. Everything in the universe is subject to this law.
• Natural Law


  Part of the eternal law accessible to human reason. Moral law directing humans to do good and avoid evil.
• Human Law


  Positive laws for specific guidance, deriving from natural law. Includes civil and criminal laws formulated through practical reason and moral principles. Unjust laws against natural law are not real laws and should not be obeyed.
• Divine Law


  Law of revelation through Scriptures and the Church. Guides toward eternal end and salvation, focusing on inward holiness and salvation.
• Kantian Ethics


  Rejection of Feelings in Ethical Judgments: Ethical judgments are based on reason, not feelings. Feelings obstruct moral discernment. Goodwill: Moral status of actions determined by reason. Goodwill is the highest good, good in itself, not as a means to an end. Only goodwill is intrinsically good. Happiness and other qualities can be corrupt without goodwill. Goodwill is valuable even if it accomplishes nothing. Acting from Duty: A good person acts from a sense of duty, exhibiting goodwill despite difficulties.
• Rights Theory


  Principle of Rights: Governments create laws with citizen consent for protection. Governments must respect the freedoms promised to citizens. Laws must have the right intentions for society's goals. Rights Based Ethics: Humans have inherent rights based on their humanity. Rights can be natural (moral) or conventional (societal values). Examples of Rights: Right to life, liberty, pursue happiness, practice religion, express ideas, assemble, work, marry, bear children, free education, equality, privacy, and own property.
• Legal vs. Moral Rights

  Legal rights: rights within legal codes, protected by law. Moral rights: exist independently from legal rights, based on natural law. Legal rights depend on legislation; moral rights do not. Human Rights: Cannot be reduced to only legal rights; include moral rights. Apply universally to all humans. Practical efficacy of human rights depends on their legal recognition.
• Utilitarianism


  Consequentialist Theory: Judges the rightness of an act by its consequences. Opposition to Absolutist Ethics: Consequentialists believe no act is ruled out if its effects are justified. Principle of Utility: States that the utility (usefulness) of consequences determines moral value. Actions producing favorable effects are moral; damaging results are immoral. Maximizing Overall Happiness: Identifies happiness with pleasure. Right action maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain.