AP final

• general adaption syndrome


  systemic response aimed at self-preservation

  stages regulated by the hypothalamus

  • fight or flight
  • resistance reaction
  • recovery or exhaustion
• the defense systems

  1. non-specific defense (innate) - keeps all foreign invaders out
  2. specific immune response (adaptive) - selective about what it is trying to get out
• 3rd degree burns

  covers > 70 % of body = death

  determine survival = rule of nines
• deep wound healing - cuts in dermis

  1. inflammation
  2. migratory phase
  3. proliferative phase
  4. maturation
• epidermal wound healing - outermost layers -

  1. epidermal cells break contact with basement membrane
  2. basal cells migrate to fill
• metabolic factors that produce heat:

  1. basal metabolic rate
  2. muscle activity
  3. thyroid regulation
  4. sympathetic stimulation
  5. body temperature
  6. mechanical digestion of food
  7. age and sex
  8. environment
• functions of the integumentary system are:

  1. protection
  2. sensory receptors
  3. excretory organ
  4. produces products
  5. storage
  6. blood reseoir
  7. synthesis of vitamin d3
  8. reticuloendothelial system
  9. thermoregulation
• non-specific defense (innate)

  • barriers - skin
  • antimicrobial substances - transferrin, interferons
  • antimicrobial cells - phagocytic cells
  • inflammation
• classification of chemicals

  1. site of action
  2. locally acting
  3. act on distant target
  4. chemistry
  5. steroids
  6. biogenic amines
  7. peptides and proteins
  8. eicosanoids
  9. solubility
  10. lipid soluble
  11. water soluble
  12. functionality
  13. kinetic
  14. metabolic
• endocrine communication systems

  overlap = hypothalamus

  1. nervous system
  2. endocrine system
• cell mediated responses

  players - T cells and macrophages

  effective - cancer cells, virus cells, transplant organs
• Antibody Responses

  players - B cells and helper t cells and phagocytic cells

  effective - bacteria and extracellular viruses
• Player in both cell mediated and antibody responses

  helper t cells
• antigen


  any macromolecule which is recognized as foreign by the body
• DNA replication

  1. dna unwinds
  2. complementary base pairing
  3. proofreading of new dna strand
• protein synthesis


  dna to mrna to trna to protein

  1. transcription - dna acts as a template for rna synthesis
  2. translation - mrna acts as a template for protein synthesis
• seminal fluid glands

  1. seminal vesicles (60%)
  2. prostate (25 - 30%)
  3. bulbourethral / cowper's
• prokaryote

  • bacteria
  • .5 - 10 um
  • singe celled
• eukaryote

  • 10 - 100 um
  • single celled or multicellular
• anterior pituitary gland hormones and target response

  • adrenocorticotrophic hormone - affects adrenal gland
  • follicle stimulating hormone - affects ovaries and testes
  • growth hormone - growth, development, maintenance
  • luteinizing hormone - affects ovaries and testes
  • prolactin - affects milk
  • thyroid stimulating hormone
• disruption of homeostasis

  variables - conditions withing the body capable of undergoing change

  stressors - act to disrupt the stability of homeostasis -
• posterior pituitary gland

  • oxytocin - labor, milk letdown
  • antidiuretic hormone - water reabsorption to increase blood pressure
• fluid from bulbourethral / cowper's gland

  pre-ejaculate

  lubricant
• fluid from prostate

  • slightly acidic
  • nutrient - citrate (kreb's cycle)
  • proteolytic enzyme - anticoagulant
  • prostatic specific agent
• pregnancy steps

  1. fertilization
  2. cleavage - formation of morula
  3. blastulation - formation of blastula
  4. implantation
  5. production of HCG
• corpus luteum in pregnancy

  • HCG stops corpus luteum from apoptosis
  • continues to produce estrogen and progesterone to thicken uterine lining
  • produces these for 6 months
• ovary functions

  • egg development / oogenesis
  • hormone production
• uterine cycle

  • days 1 - 5 : menstruation
  • sloughing of uterine lining
  • corpus luteum apoptosis leads to decrease of estrogen and progesterone leads to vasoconstriction
  • days 5 - 13 : proliferative
  • increase in estrogen
  • day 14 : ovulation
  • days 15 - 28 : secretory
  • increased estrogen and progesterone
• ovarian cycle

  • days 1 - 13 : follicular
  • follicles enlarge to graafian follicle
  • increased estrogen
  • day 14 : ovulation
  • increased estrogen leads to increased LH
  • days 15 - 28 : luteal
  • corpus luteum
  • estrogen and progesterone
• semen analysis

  • volume of sperm
  • morphology - normal vs abnormal sperm shape
  • pH - slightly basic
  • mobility - 60% should swim forward
  • fructose
• causes of male infertility

  • semen analysis
  • anatomy
  • hormone imbalance
  • improper temperature regulation of testes
  • anabolic steroid use
• causes of impotence

  • organic (more likely)
  • damage to nervous system
  • low blood pressure / blood supply
  • hormone imbalance
  • psychogenic
  • psychological
  • social origin
• male reproductive problems

  • impotence
  • inability to maintain or achieve an erection
  • infertility
  • not being able to have as many children as desired
• central endocrine organs

  • hypothalamus
  • pituitary
• Peripheral endocrine organs

  • thyroid
  • parathyroid
  • adrenal
  • pineal
  • liver
  • skin
  • pancreas
• changes during puberty (male)

  • hypothalamus releases GnRH
  • increased growth of body hair
  • enlarged and thickened larynx
  • thickened skin
  • increased protein synthesis
  • regulation of spermatogenesis
• what is tested for in a pregnancy test? - HCG
• crossing over / recombination

  • gene for gene exchange
  • changes the form of that gene
  • 3 % of genetic material is exchanged
  • during metaphase 1 of meiosis
• fluid from seminal vesicles

  • alkaline = basic
  • nutrient = fructose
  • prostaglandins - cause smooth muscle to contract
  • semenogelin - coagulant
• antigenic determinants - epitopes


  regions on antigen which triggers an immune response