3.2

• What are two ways that environmental design can affect the level of crime?

  1. some can influence people to become offenders
  2. some can affect peoples ability to exercise control over their surroundings
• Whats an indefensible space?


  Where crimes are more likely to occur in whats called 'confused' areas of public space such as anonymous walkways and stairwells. It they don't look like they belong to someone, crime is more likely to occur.
• What did Newmans New York study show?

  55% of all crimes committed occurred in public spaces where no one believed they were owned.
• Whats a defensible space?

  Areas where there are clear boundaries so it's obvious who has a right to be there. Newman argues that defensible spaces have less crime because of 4 features.
• What are the 4 features of defensibility?

  1. Territoriality
  2. Natural Surveillance
  3. A safe image
  4. A safe location
• Whats territoriality?


  The environment encourages a sense of ownership among the residents. (eg cul-de-sacs)
• Whats natural surveillance?


  Features of buildings that make them easily viewed, to identify and observe strangers. This prevents someone from finding the opportunity to commit a crime.
• Whats a safe image?

  Building designs that give the impression of a safe neighbourhood where residents look out for each other. This is less likely to be targeted by offenders.
• Whats a safe location?

  Neighbourhoods that a located in a crime free area and are insulated from the outside world. A 'moat' of safety.
• What does CPTED stand for?

  Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
• Who developed Newmans ideas of defensible spaces?

  C.R. Jeffery, an American criminologist
• What did C.R. Jeffery argue?

  That a built environment can either create or deny opportunities for crime. So crime can be reduced by altering the environment.
• What was Alice Colemans study?

  She analysed 4,009 blocks of flats in two London boroughs. She concluded that poor flat designs let to high crime rates. She found 3 design features to reduce crime.
• What were Alice Colemans 3 design features to reduce crime?

  1. No more flat blocks to be built
  2. Each flat block should have a garden or private space for residents to own
  3. Overhead walkways should be removed as they obstruct surveillance.
• What did Alice Colemans findings result in?

  1. Overhead walkways were removed in the Lisson Green Estate (London) this reduced 50% of crime
  2. Police forces employ architectural liaison officers to 'build in' crime prevention features into new buildings
  3. The 'secured by design' Kitemark scheme in the building industry. The Home Office found this this reduced 30% of burglaries in SBD houses.
• What are gated lanes?

  CPTED tactic to 'design crime out' of environments. These were lockable gates to prevent public access to alleyways in older terraced houses. This prevented burglaries and antisocial behaviour.
• What did Sidebottom et al suggest was the reason for reduced burglaries in gated lanes?

  1. physical crime barrier
  2. provides responsibility and ownership
  3. increase sense of territoriality
  4. closes it off to the public
  5. prevents 'broken window' effect
  6. reduces rewards of crime
• Whats the limitations of gated lanes?

  1. doesn't work against criminals who live in the gated area
  2. neighbours may not trust each other
  3. residents may not always agree to the scheme
  4. they restrict access for the emergency services and refuse collectors
• What theories do CPTED link to?

  • Situational Crime Prevention (target hardening, physical barriers)
  • Felsons routine activity (capable guardians, mutual surveillance)
  • Rational choice theory (rational offenders will be deterred)
• What are the criticisms of CPTED?

  1. only focus on external crime (not domestic abuse, fraud)
  2. there may not always be surveillance in cul-de-sacs
  3. criminals may live in the area and not be affected
  4. areas reputation may have a higher effect on crime rate than environmental design
• How does the Panopticon work?

  Prison cells are visible to guards at a central viewing point. They're likely to be deterred from crime as they're more likely to get caught.
• Whats surveillance theory?


  Foulcault's surveillance theory is that self-surveillance has become an important method to achieve social control because we don't know when we're being watched, so more likely to obey the law.
• What are 2 behavioural tactics?

  1. ASBOs and CBOs
  2. Token economies
• When were ASBOs introduced?

  1998 by Tony Blair (Labour government)
• What does ASBO stand for?

  Anti-Social Behaviour Order
• Why were ASBOs introduced?

  To deal with low level anti-social behaviour (vandalism, graffiti, public drunkness)
• What are ASBOs?


  Civil orders to restrain people from committing further antisocial from the threat of imprisonment. If someone breaches the conditions, they'll be punished by up to 5 years in prison.
• How many ASBOs were issued between 2000-2013 and how many were breached?

  24,000 and 58% were breached. 10,000 were breached repeatedly.
• Why were ASBOs unsuccessful?

  It caused labelling. Once deviance was followed by more deviances leading to the self-fulfilling prophecy. Theorists suggest that ASBOs become a 'badge of honour' for young offenders, leading to increased criminality.
• What replaced ASBOs in 2014?

  Criminal Behavioural Orders (CBOs)
• What are the 2 measures in CBOs?

  1. Civil Injunctions
  2. Criminal Behavioural Orders
• What are civil injunctions?

  Deals with low level nuisance and annoyance, breaching leads to 2 years imprisonment for adults and 3 month imprisonment for U18.
• What are criminal behavioural orders?

  Deals with seriously antisocial individuals who cause harassment, alarm and distress to others. Breaching them leads to 5 year imprisonment for adults and 2 year detention for U18. They can last 1-2 years for U18 and 2 years for adults.
• What are the negative requirements of CBOs?

  Forbids a person from doing something or going somewhere
• What are the positive requirements of CBOs?

  Requires an individual to do something positive to improve their behaviour: drug treatment programmes or mental health programmes.
• Whats a token economy?

  behaviour modification programme used by some prisons, young offender institutes and psychiatric hospitals. It aims to achieve social control by reshaping inmates behavioural patterns to conform to institution requirements.
• What theory is token economy based on?

  Skinners Operant Learning Theory, positive behaviours is reinforced using a reward and negative behaviour is punished.
• How can token economies achieve social control?


  • obeying the rules
  • interacting positively with staff and inmates
  • staying drug free
  • engaging in purposeful activity
• How can prisons use tokens?

  To exchange for prison rewards, in some prisons the reward can be increasing their level in incentives and earning privillages (IEPs)
• How effective are token economies?

  Some studies show that token economies are only effective while they're in the institution. So, when they leave prison the enforcement disappears.

  But, they recidivate more slowly than others who have not undergone the programme.

  So, it makes them more manageable in prison, however not out of prison.