ALL THEORY - A level media

• Signifier


  The form of a sign - something which can be seen, heard, touched, smelt or tasted
• Signified


  The idea or meaning conveyed by the signifier
• Sign


  The smallest unit of meaning, e.g. a word, or part of an image
• Types of sign


  • Iconic sign
  • Indexical sign
  • Arbitrary sign/symbol
• Iconic sign


  • Holds physical similarities to the object it signifies and resembles what it stands for
• Indexical sign


  • Holds some physical or literal connection to what is signified, although there is no direct resemblance
• Arbitrary sign/symbol


  • Bears no physical or literal resemblance to what is signified - the meaning it conveys is a culturally accepted convention that must be learnt
• Denotation


  The literal, or universally agreed upon, meaning of a sign or symbol
• Connotation


  The meanings audiences associate with the sign or symbol based on their own broader experiences and knowledge of the world
• Barthes' five codes


  • Hermeneutic/enigma code
  • Proairetic/action code
  • Referential/cultural code
  • Semantic code
  • Symbolic code
• Barthes believed that myths are often created to fulfil a political agenda
• Naturalisation of myths


  If a constructed sign or convention is repeated enough, it becomes naturalised
• Barthes used the cover of the French magazine Paris Match as an example of a myth being naturalised
• Narrative


  The way in which a sequence of events is constructed. It defines how the events are positioned in relation to each other for the benefit of the audience
• Story


  The sequence of events as they happened
• Narratology


  The study of narrative
• What drives narrative


  • Causality (one thing leading to another)
  • Time and space
• Hooks


  Means of gripping the audience and pulling them into the narrative, e.g. a tense opening scene
• Cultural tropes


  Commonplace themes, plot points and visual cues that appear in a narrative to help the audience's understanding of it
• Analepsis


  Another word for flashback
• Prolepsis


  Another word for flashforward
• Restricted


  A quality of narratives that withhold information from the audience, usually to invoke mystery and set up a satisfying twist ending
• Omniscient


  A quality of narratives that provides the audience with perspective on all relevant characters and events. This can result in dramatic irony as the audience are more in the know than the characters
• Developments in online and participatory media are challenging theories of narratology as audiences now have more control over the stories told through these forms
• Todorov's five key stages of narrative structure

  • Equilibrium
  • Disruption
  • Recognition
  • Resolution
  • New equilibrium
• Closed narrative


  • The Lion King (1994)
  • Jaws (1975)
• Open narrative


  • The Simpsons (1989-)
  • EastEnders (1985-)
• Multistrand narrative


  • Game of Thrones (2011-2019)
  • Love Actually (2003)
• Linear narrative


  • The Dark Knight (2008)
  • 1917 (2019)
• Nonlinear narrative


  • Pulp Fiction (1994)
  • Lost (2004-2010)
• Propp's character types


  • Hero
  • Villain
  • Princess
  • Dispatcher
  • Donor
  • Princess's father
  • Helper
  • False hero
• Genre


  A way of grouping texts which share common attributes and characteristics in terms of form, style and content
• Subgenres


  Smaller categories within a larger, 'parent' genre
• Genre hybridity


  When a text does not precisely fit into one single category but instead holds the conventions of two or more different genres
• Genres and their popularity are emblematic of both audience trends and evolving cultural views
• Ways in which print media can be categorised

  • Structure
  • Blueprint
  • Label
  • Contract
• Repetition


  The process through which certain generic conventions can become established and easily identifiable for audiences
• Variation


  Texts that break the mould are equally important in order to prevent genre stagnation and keep audiences engaged
• Genres appeal to producers because they provide sure high audience engagement and maximised profit
• Steve Neale


  Professor at Exeter University who studies genre, particularly in relation to Hollywood cinema