THEORY AND METHODS

• social order - how large groups of individuals manage to live together so that society does not descend into chaos & anarchy
• modernity

  • period from mid 17th - mid 20th centuries
  • involved growth of rational scientific understanding & explanations of world; seen as means of increasing human knowledge & control of nature / society, thereby providing means to improve the world
  • early sociologists, ie marx & durkheim, believed explaining society & social life with research could develop the means for improving human lives & achieve a more stable & prosperous society by eliminating social problems ie poverty & crime
• themes in theory

  • modernism typically involves large-scale theories that provide general explanations of society
  • extent of consensus / conflict - how is social order maintained despite differences between people
  • problem of determinism / choice - how much freedom do people have to influence society, & if the lives of individuals are determined by social forces out of their control or if they have control over the factors that influence their lives
• consensus theory - assumes society is primarily harmonious & social order is maintained through a widespread agreement between people on the important goals, values & norms of society; for example, functionalism
• conflict theory - sees society as primarily conflict-ridden & unstable, & emphasises social differences & conflicts between groups; for example, marxism
• determinism or choice

  • structuralism - concerned with overall structure of society & how social institutions constrain, limit & control individual behaviour; ie functionalism or marxism
  • social action / interpretivist approaches - see people as having more proactive role in shaping social life & society; prefer qualitative methods & value the meanings of individuals; ie dramaturgical model
  • integrated approaches - combines structure & action theories & believe people have free will & choice, but this are restricted by social institutions; ie weber
• features of structuralism

  • behaviour, values & identities are determined by social forces external to the individual, ie socialisation
  • purpose of sociology is to study society & focuses on social structure as a whole, not individuals; therefore a macro approach since it is large-scale
  • society should be studied scientifically with positivist methods since individual behaviour is a response to measurable social forces, & meanings are a reflection of external forces, so not worth studying in their own right
• functionalism - consensus, structural, macro, modernist approach

  • parsons - gail model
  • maintenance of social order through value consensus & social integration
  • social change is the result of structural differentiation
  • durkheim - organic analogy, & argued sociology should be studied scientifically
• functionalism - parsons' idea of an ideal society focused around society acting as a system in order to meet its needs, as demonstrated by the gail model:

  • goal attainment - selecting society's goals & providing means to achieve them
  • adaptation - adapting to environment & helping with human existence
  • integration - achieving shared goals by socialising into shared values
  • latency - minimising social tensions & interpersonal conflicts
• functionalism - maintenance of social order

  • social order is maintained through value consensus & social integration
  • value consensus - society functions when there is broad agreement about values & this is achieved through socialisation; absence of value consensus is anomie (state of normlessness)
  • social integration - cohesion that members of society experience when they share norms & values with a community, creating sense of belonging
  • mainly brought about during education through teaching history & religion, as people feel part of a larger group when they all share same history & religion
• functionalism - social change

  • explain social change to occur as result of structural differentiation
  • this is the way that institutions become more specialised & take over functions performed by a single institution
  • for example, the nhs & education system took over the function of the extended family, which has now become less common
• functionalism - durkheim's organic analogy

  • views society to act similarly to a body
  • different institutions perform different tasks, however they all interlink in order for society to perform well
  • society is therefore similar to the human body, where different organs (social institutions) have different functions, but the failure of one organ can have detrimental effects to the rest of the body
• merton criticises parsons for assuming all social institutions are beneficial

  • there is plenty of opportunity for dysfunction, for example technology can lead to scientific progress but also contributes to environmental pollution & climate change
  • introduces two concepts:
  • manifest function - intended outcome of the action of an individual or institution
  • latent function - unintended outcome of the action of an individual or institution, whether it is good or bad
• functionalism strengths

  • recognises importance of social structure & how it constrains individual behaviour
  • reasonably successful explanation for social order & stability, & why people generally conform to rules of social life; however, factors such as socialisation & value consensus should limit social change, but do not, so functionalism therefore cannot explain periods of rapid social change
• functionalism weaknesses

  • action theory - deterministic; individuals as passive products of social system, failing to account for individual choice & the meanings & interpretations of individuals
  • postmodernism - metanarrative trying to explain everything from single perspective, & is incapable of explaining chaos & diversity of contemporary societies
  • over-emphasises harmony & ignores conflicts of class system & patriarchy; conflicts can exist even within seemingly functional institutions ie family
  • assumes value consensus; just ideas of dominant class imposed on society, not real value consensus
• neo-functionalism - also known as 'new right'; it is a political ideology & approach to social & political policies, not a sociological perspective
• similarities between functionalism & new right

  • emphasis on importance of socialisation into shared values for maintenance of social stability
  • lays great stress on role & importance of traditional institutions in building shared values, ie conventional marriage & family
  • condemns anything seen as threatening traditional values or undermining the core functions of social institutions in maintaining social stability
• similarities between marxism & functionalism

  • both are modernist, structuralist theories
  • both believe a scientific analysis of society is possible
  • both search for a discovery of laws of human behaviour
  • only difference is marxism is a conflict theory
• classical marxism - conflict, structural, macro, modernist approach

  • two-class model; creates conflict
  • base & superstructure where economic system largely determines social structure & owners of economic system control society
  • private ownership & exploitation, where owners profit by not paying workers' labour equal to product's worth
  • dominant ideology (ideas of ruling class)
  • revolution & communism, where marx predicted class consciousness (being aware of your class & the issues) will lead to revolution
• classical marxism - base & superstructure

  • economy forms the 'base' of societies, for example the production of goods
  • superstructure is everything else, such as culture & social institutions
  • superstructure rests upon the base & reflects the ruling class' interests, & therefore justifies how the base operates & legitimates inequalities
• classical marxism - two-class model

  • bourgeoisie - the powerful, rich people who own the means of production & exploit the proletariat
  • proletariat - the much larger, poorer group that act as workers for the bourgeoisie
• classical marxism strengths

  • private ownership explains extreme social inequalities in wealth, income & power that persist in contemporary societies, & explains conflicts that periodically surface, many of which are rooted in social class inequalities
  • remains a highly influential theory & has significant influence on other theories, such as weber & marxist feminists
• classical marxism weaknesses - general criticisms

  • predictions not come true; society not polarised with wc becoming poorer, no revolution & collapse of communist regimes ie soviet union where inequalities & private ownership persisted
  • two-class model inadequate due to growth of middle class; predicted only 2 classes
  • class is not the only source of inequality, ie ethnicity, gender, sexuality, etc
• classical marxism weaknesses - theories' criticisms

  • functionalism - over-emphasises conflict; society primarily stable (ie no revolution), so must be some shared values
  • social action theory - deterministic & assumes people can't change their circumstances
  • postmodernism - metanarrative & can't explain contemporary societies; media now has bigger influence on ideas than the economy; choice & consumption taken over
• neo-marxism

  • those who further developed the work of marx (classical marxism)
  • some of these developments are because of the criticisms of marx, such as that it is now outdated
  • 2 main strands:
  • humanist - gramsci
  • structuralist - althusser
• gramsci - humanist neo-marxism

  • argues ideas matter & people have free will
  • marx over-emphasised economy, so focused on ideology & ideas not connected to economic base
  • hegemony (dominance of rc ideas) allows rc to have control over us (isa), not just repressive agencies of state, & this is main reason wc has not rebelled, as they failed to develop their own ideology
  • dual consciousness - brainwashed but unaware of it
  • people's ideas underpin actions they choose to make
  • stressed importance of people's ideas, choices & action in bringing about change, not just economic conditions
• althusser - structuralist neo-marxism

  • economy still important & agrees with marx's determinism & that there's little choice
  • 3 levels to capitalist society that preserve & justify power of ruling class
  • social structures, especially economy, are still key influences on people's ideas
  • relative autonomy - relative independence of 'superstructure' (ie ideology & culture) from economic 'base'; contrasts classical marxism that economy determines superstructure
• althusser - levels to capitalist society

  • economic - consisting of economy & production of material goods
  • political - rsa which uses repressive, physical means of keeping population in line, using coercion instead of consent; consists of government & organisations involved in political organisation & control of society ie army, police, etc
  • ideological - isa, concerned with ideas, beliefs & values; dominant ideology spread by institutions ie media, education system & religion, using consent instead of coercion
• neo-marxism strengths

  • tried to overcome weaknesses of classical marxism, particularly its economic determinism
  • gramsci's concept of hegemony recognises importance of people's ideas & actions
  • althusser's concept of relative autonomy suggests institutions n superstructure can have an impact on the economy, not just the other way around
• neo-marxism weaknesses

  • classical marxists argue marx did recognise importance of ideas & meanings with discussion of class consciousness, & that neo-marxists underplay importance of economy
  • gramsci criticised for over-emphasising role of ideas & under-emphasising role of material factors (ie unemployment, fear of poverty, economic crisis) & state repression in preventing revolutionary action by wc
• feminism

  • developed due to sociology being male-dominated or 'malestream'
  • focuses on inequalities faced by women
  • introduced new areas of studies, ie gender division of labour & domestic violence, & construction of gender identities ie through socialisation & schooling
  • different types:
  • liberal feminism
  • radical feminism
  • marxist feminism
  • dual systems feminism
  • intersectional feminism
• liberal feminism

  • suggests inequality rises from factors like sexist stereotyping, gender role socialisation, outdated laws & attitudes, etc
  • believe legal, economic & social equality for women will come through gradual reform, ie high quality & affordable childcare, men doing more housework, equal pay, anti-discrimination laws, etc
  • had important effects on social policy, ie equal pay act & sex discrimination act
• liberal feminism criticisms

  • merely deals with reducing effects of women's subordination
  • does not challenge fundamental causes, such as the patriarchy (radical feminists) & capitalism (marxist feminism), which may need to be overthrown for true equality
• radical feminism

  • regard patriarchy as most fundamental form of inequality, dividing society into 2 'sex classes'
  • men dominate women in all areas & benefit from women's inequality
  • men are enemy who strive to dominate & control women via violence & intimidation, & use them for sexual pleasure
  • believe, to be free from patriarchy, women should live separate from men, leading to movements like political lesbianism
• radical feminism criticisms

  • assumes all women share common interests while ignoring other factors such as class & ethnicity, which cause differences in inequality
  • fails to recognise improvements through gradual reform (liberal feminism)
  • marxist feminists argue that it is capitalism, not patriarchy, that is the main source of women's subordination & which benefits the most, not men
• marxist feminism

  • gender inequality rises from capitalist society
  • women used as cheap labour force & reserve army of labour, as well as free labour via unpaid domestic labour & childcare
  • women's expressive role is to absorb men's anger at their exploitation at work - ansley describes women as 'takers of shit'
  • capitalism is root cause of women's oppression, not men or outdated attitudes & stereotypes
• marxist feminism criticisms

  • radical feminists argue marxist feminism can't explain that patriarchy has existed in all known societies, not just capitalist societies
  • radical feminists argue it is men, not capitalism, who benefit from women's subordination (ie get positions of power, & high status & pay) & men are the instruments of oppression, ie they discriminate, abuse, rape, etc
  • ignores other sources of inequality such as ethnicity
• dual systems feminism

  • capitalism & patriarchy seen as two (dual) separate systems that interact & reinforce one another in 'patriarchal capitalism'
  • generates dual roles for women as homemakers & paid workers
  • women forced into economic dependence while serving needs of capitalism as cheap, expendable labour
  • these structures combine with factors such as class & ethnicity to generate causes for subordination of women
  • sees structures, not men, as source of inequality
• dual systems feminism criticisms

  • primarily theoretical approach
  • does not offer many solutions to problems of women's subordination that have not already been considered by other feminist theories
• intersectional feminism

  • argued other theories viewed women's subordination through the eyes of a middle-class white woman
  • argue oppression can take diverse forms in different contexts & social groups
  • this is particularly the case in postmodern societies, where ethnicity becomes a large source of identity