Research Methods

• Define experimental method


  Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to have an effect on the dependant variable (DV) which is measure and stated in results.
• What is the difference between a directional and non-directional hypothesis?

  Directional hypothesis- states the direction of the impact of independent variable (IV) on the dependent variable (DV)

  Non-directional does not state the direction of the relationship between the IV and the DV.
• Identify five types of sampling methods

  - opportunity sampling

  - random sampling

  - systematic sampling

  - stratified sampling

  - volunteer sampling
• Outline how you would take a stratified sample

  1) Identify the strata

  2) Calculate the required proportion for each stratum based on the size of the target population

  3) Select the sample at random from each stratum

  4) To do this, you can use a random selection method e.g. using a computer
• Explain one advantage of using a stratified sample

  More representative of the target population compared to other types of sampling
• Explain what is meant by operationalisation

  Process by which a researcher defines how a concept is measured, observed, or manipulated within a particular study.

  For example, social anxiety can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.
• What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependant variable?

  IV is the variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the DV.

  DV is the variable that is being measured and is affected by the IV
• What is a solution to the problem of order effects caused by a repeated measures design?

  A solution would be counterbalancing. This is when half of the participants are made to do conditions in ones order and the other half in the opposite order. This eliminates order effects
• Explain the difference between the aim and the hypothesis

  The aim of the study tells us what the study is investigating whereas the hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV
• 4 types of experiments

  - lab

  - field

  - Quasi

  - natural
• Describe the purpose of carrying out a peer review

  - to allocate research funding to projects that is worthwhile

  - to make sure the research is of good quality and is relevant

  - to be able to suggest improvements so that faulty or incorrect data is not released to the public
• 3 limitations of conducting a case study

  - Only concerned one person, not generalisable to wider populations

  - Retrospective studies may rely on ememory which can be unreliable

  - Time consuming
• Define reliability


  Measure of consistency
• Controlled observation


  Observe din a lab, increasing controls and reliability nut decreasing eco logical validity
• Correlation


  Extent to which two variables are associated
• Covert observation


  Observer is hidden and pps dont know they are ebbing observed.

  +ve- reduce demand characteristics

  -ve- ethical issues around consent
• Field experiment


  Conducted in a real life setting

  -ve- reduces the amount of control over EV

  +ve- ecological validity is improved
• Lab experiment


  Conducted in a highly controlled environment

  +ve- allowing control over EV

  -ve- low ecological validity
• Natural experiment


  IV that already exists is tested in its natural environment

  -ve- reducing the amount of control over EV

  +ve- allows for investigation of variables that cannot be ethically created
• Naturalistic observation


  Pps are observed in their natural environment

  +ve- increases ecological validity

  -ve- decreasing control over EV
• Non- participant observation


  Observer does not join the group under observation

  +ve- higher objectivity

  -ve- reduces the insight that could be achieved with participant observation
• Over observation


  Pps know they are under observation

  +ve- yields highly valuable qualitative info with insights

  -ve- reduce the objectivity of the researcher
• Concurrent validity


  Occurs if a test is similar to an older test that already has well-established validity
• Confounding variable


  Any variables that are kept constant through the experiment to prevent their effects on the DV
• Face validity


  If a test appears to be valid at first appearance, in spite of how well it works in a real world scenario
• Falsifiability


  The quality of being able to be proven wrong
• Inter-observation reliability


  Multiple investigators gather info separately during an observation and compare their data for similarity after
• Investigation effects


  Unconscious changes in the investigators behaviour to comply with the hypothesis of the investigation
• Standardisation


  Keeping the experimental methods as identical as possible
• Correlation coefficient


  Represents the strength and direction of the correlation

  - statistical test of correlation that produces a numerical value (-1 or +1)
• The closer to zero...

  The weaker the correlation
• The closer to +1/-1


  the stronger the correlation
• positive correlation


  +1
• Negative


  -1
• Case studies


  Detailed, in-depth and longitudinal

  - unusual and typical cases

  - qualitative data
• Strength of case studies

  - rich, detailed insight= high validity

  - enables study of unusual behaviour
• Limitation of case studies

  - prone to researcher bias= reduce validity

  - small samples= difficult to generalise
• Content analysis


  People are studied indirectly through their communications:

  - spoken interactions

  - written forms
• First stage of content analysis


  Coding= produce quantitative data
• Thematic analysis


  Similar to content analysis but is more qualitative and aims to produce themes rather than word counts