research methods

• validity

  Validity is the extent to which a test or piece of research measures what it claims to measure.
• reliability

  Reliability is the extent to which the results of research are consistent.
• directional hypothesis?

  A directional hypothesis predicts the way one variable will affect another in the study. They are used when previous research has shown a similar effect and so the researcher can be confident that the same results will be found.
• non-directional hypothesis?

  not specific in what they predict, used when previous studies haven’t shown a similar effect or there is no previous research so the researcher isn’t confident about the outcome of their own study. They state that one factor will relate to another but not how they relate
• null hypothesis?

  written like non- directional hypotheses but predicts no difference between the two conditions of the independent variable in relation to the dependent variable.
• types of experiments?

  • Laboratory experiments
  • Field experiments
  • Natural experiments
  • Quasi-experiments
• laboratory experiments?

  controlled environment

  (+) high control

  (+) replicability

  (-) demand characteristics & investigator effects

  (-) low ecological validity
• field experiments

  Field experiments take place in a real-world setting and manipulate the independent variable.

  (+) high ecological validity

  (+) reduced demand characteristics

  (-) low control over extraneous variables

  (-) difficult to replicate

  (-) unethical
• natural experiments

  Natural experiments involve naturally occurring independent and dependent variables, with the researcher measuring the dependent variable

  (+) high ecological validity

  (+) reduction of demand characteristics

  (+) ethical method for socially sensitive research

  (-) low control over extraneous variables

  (-) difficult to replicate
• What is a quasi-experiment?


  A quasi-experiment involves a pre-existing independent variable and is conducted in controlled conditions.

  (+) control over extraneous variables/ cause and effect

  (+) replicability

  (-) potentially reduced ecologically validity

  (-) lower control over extraneous variables than lab experiements
• What are the different experimental designs?

  • Independent groups design
  • Repeated measures design
  • Matched pairs design
• independent groups design

  different P's are used for each condition

  (+) order effects avoided

  (+) reduced demand characteristics

  (+) less time-consuming

  (+) same stimulus used

  (-) time-consuming to gather sample

  (-) participant variables may confound results
• repeated measures design

  same participant used in all conditions

  (+) participants variables don't confound results

  (+) reduced demand characteristics

  (+) less time-consuming

  (+) same stimulus used

  (-) demand characteristics less likely to confound results

  (-) same stimulus can't be used

  (-) more time-consuming than IG

  (-) order effects may confound results
• What is a matched pairs design?

  A matched pairs design involves pairing participants on relevant variables and allocating one from each pair to each condition.

  (+) P variables less likely to affect results than IG

  (+) order effects avoided

  (+) reduced demand characteristics

  (+) same stimulus used

  (+) less time- consuming

  (-) difficult and time-consuming to match P's
• What is an extraneous variable?

  An extraneous variable is any variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable if not controlled.
• What is a confounding variable?

  A confounding variable is an extraneous variable that may have influenced the dependent variable, and its effect cannot be separated from that of the independent variable.
• correlations

  Positive- as one variable increases, so does the other

  Negative- as one variable increases, the other decreases

  Zero correlation indicates no relationship between two variables.

  
• What is a controlled observation?

  involves behaviour observed and measured in a controlled environment.

  (+) control over extraneous variables

  (+) replicability

  (-) low ecological validity

  (-) demand characteristics & investigator effects likely
• naturalistic observation

  involves behaviour watched and measured in a natural environment

  (+) high ecological validity

  (+) demand characteristics reduced

  (+) ethical method for socially sensitive research

  (+) useful alongside/ instead of lab environment

  (-) difficult to replicate

  (-) low control over extraneous variables
• covert observations?

  observer is not clearly visible, and participants do not know that they are being observed.

  (+) demand characteristics will not confound results.

  (–) ethical issues
• participant observation

  researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are observing

  (+) increases insight

  (-) researchers presence may confound results

  (-) researcher bias may confound results
• non-participant observation

  involves the researcher remaining outside of the group they are observing

  (+) researcher presence unlikely to confound results

  (+) researchers bias unlikely to confound results

  (-) decreased insight
• What is inter-rater reliability?

  Inter-rater reliability refers to the consistency of observations made by different observers. If one person carries out an observation, the results could be affected by researcher bias. This can be reduced by having more than one observer and ensuring they make reliable observations.
• What are the steps to ensure inter-rater reliability?

  • Use pilot studies
  • Conduct trial observations with all observers watching for all behaviour categories, may also use a recording of behaviour
  • Ensure observers use the same behaviours and tally each time they occur
  • Correlate observational scores
  • strong positive correlation = observed behaviour assumed to be reliable
• What are behavioral categories in observational design?

  Behavioral categories are the exact behaviors that psychologists look for and record in a study.
• What is operationalization in research?

  Operationalization involves clear identification and definition of observable actions or behaviors to be recorded.
• What is event sampling?

  Event sampling involves recording every time a specific event relevant to the investigation is observed.
• What is time sampling?

  Time sampling involves observing and recording behavior that occurs at given points in time.
• What are closed questions in questionnaires?

  Closed questions are those where the researcher determines the range of possible answers.
• What are open questions in questionnaires?

  Open questions require a descriptive answer with no restriction on the response given by the participant.
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed and open questions?

  Advantages of closed questions:

  • Quantitative data, easy to analyze
  • Easy to compare responses

  
  

  Disadvantages of closed questions:

  • Limited information, reducing internal validity

  
  

  Advantages of open questions:

  • Rich qualitative data, increases internal validity
  • Allows for detailed responses

  
  

  Disadvantages of open questions:

  • Difficult to quantify, challenging to test reliability
• What should researchers consider when designing questionnaires?

  • Aims of the research
  • Length of the questionnaire
  • Previous questions
  • Question formation
  • Use of pilot study
  • Measurement scale
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?

  Advantages:

  • Speed of data collection
  • Validity of findings
  • Easy to replicate and test reliability

  
  

  Disadvantages:

  • Self-report may not be valid
  • Leading questions and misinterpretations
• What are the types of interviews in research methods?

  • Structured interviews: fixed set of questions
  • Unstructured interviews: no set questions, more conversational
• What is a structured interview?


  A structured interview consists of a predetermined set of questions in a fixed order.
• What is an unstructured interview?

  An unstructured interview has no set questions and encourages a natural conversation.
• What are the techniques used in case studies?

  • IQ testing
  • Personality testing
  • Observations
  • Interviews
  • Experiments
  • Medical case notes
• What are the sampling techniques in research methods?

  • Opportunity sampling: convenient participants
  • Volunteer sampling: self-selected participants
  • Random sampling: equal chance for all
  • Systematic sampling: every nth member
  • Stratified sampling: mirrors target population
• What is opportunity sampling?

  Opportunity sampling involves using any convenient members of the target population who are willing to participate.
• What is volunteer sampling?

  Volunteer sampling involves using members of the target population who have put themselves forward to participate.