Unit 2 - Textbook Notes

• Universal Acceptability

  • An action is morally right if and only if the maxim is universalizable
  • AKA if the maxim can be accepted by every rational being, it's morally right
• Hypothetical Imperatives

  • Tells us what we must do on the assumption that we have some particular goal
  • Can get rid of the imperative (ought/should) by getting rid of the ends (A, B, and C) (w/o being considered irrational)
  • YOU OUGHT TO DO X BUT ONLY IF YOU WANT A, B, AND C
• Hedonism

  • The view that pleasure (or happiness) is the only thing that is good in itself, the ultimate good, the one thing in life worth pursuing for its own sake
• Human Rights

  • Moral rights that are NOT the result of particular roles, special relationships, or specific circumstances
• Ideal

  • A morally significant goal, virtue, or notion of excellence worth striving for
• Legal Rights

  • Rights derived from our legal system
• Maxim

  • the reason for acting
• Moral Rights

  • Derive from special relationships, roles, or circumstances, in which we happen to be in
• Negative Rights

  • Reflect the vital interest that human beings have in being free from outside interference
• Positive Rights

  • Reflect the vital interest that human beings have in receiving certain benefits
• Optimal Moral Code

  • Takes into account what rules can reasonably be taught and obeyed, as well as the costs of instilling those rules to people
  • The "optimality" of a moral code is about both the benefits of getting people to act in certain ways and the costs of bringing that about
• Supererogatory Actions

  • Actions that would be good to do but not immoral, not to do
• Personal Egoists

  • claim they should pursue their own best interests, but they don't say what others should do
• Impersonal Egoists

  • Claim that everyone should let self-interest guide his/her conduct
• 3 Problems with Egoism

  1. Psychological Egoism is not a sound theory
  2. Ethical Egoism is not really a moral principle at all
  3. Ethical Egoism condones (supports/allows) blatant wrongs
• What was Bentham's View of Pleasure?

  • He believed that actions are right if they promote the greatest human welfare, and wrong if they don't
• What was Mill's View of Pleasure?

  • States that the utility principle must take into consideration the QUALITY of different pleasures and pains, not just their intensity and duration
• 6 Points about Utilitarianism

  • When deciding which action will produce the greatest happiness, we must consider unhappiness or pain as well as happiness
  • Actions affect people to different degrees
  • Because utilitarians evaluate actions according to their consequences, and actions produce different results in different circumstances, almost anything might, in principle, be morally right in some particular situation
  • Utilitarians want to maximize happiness not just immediately but also in the long run as well
  • Utilitarians acknowledge that they often aren't certain what the future consequences of their actions will be
  • When choosing between possible actions, utilitarianism doesn't require us to disregard our own pleasure or give it more weight, but rather consider our own levels of pleasure and pain equally with the pleasure and pains of others
• 3 Features of Utilitarianism in an Organizational Context

  1. Utilitarianism provides a clear and straightforward basis for formulating and testing policies
  2. Utilitarianism provides an objective and attractive way of resolving conflicts of self-interest
  3. Utilitarianism provides a flexible, result-oriented approach to moral decision making
• 3 Critical Inquiries of Utilitarianism

  1. Is utilitarianism really workable
  2. Are some actions wrong, even if they produce good
  3. Is utilitarianism unjust
• Why are Business Practices considered Good for Society?

  • The practices with businesses are egoistic, but capital economist Adam Smith believes that it's also utilitarian because the pursuit of self-interest is for the good of society
• 2 Alternative Formulations of the Categorical Imperative

  1. An action is right if and only if its maxim is universally acceptable, (acceptable to all rational parties) whether the action is done by them or to them
  2. One must treat humanity as an End, never as merely a Means

  AKA treat people as humans not as things you can use

  treating people as means (things) would be failing to respect the dignity of a rational being
• 3 Features of Kant's Ethics in an Organizational Context

  1. The categorical imperative gives us firm rules to follow in moral decision making, rules that don't depend on circumstances or results and that don't permit individual exceptions
  2. Kant introduces an important humanistic dimension into business decision. One of the principle objections to egoism and utilitarianism is that they permit us to treat humans as means to ends and Kant's principles clearly forbid this.
  3. Kant stresses the importance of motivation and acting on principle
• 3 Critical Inquiries of Kant's Ethics

  1. What has moral worth
  2. Is the Categorical Imperative an Adequate Test of Right
  3. What does it mean to treat people as means
• Prima Facie Duties

  • A duty that can be overridden by a more important duty
• What is Ross's Pluralism?

  • an alternative to inflexible rules or mere useful rules of thumb (can break rules whenever they'll help)
  • believes in prima facie duties
• 4 Characteristics of Human Rights

  Human Rights are:

  1. Universal
  2. Equal
  3. Not transferrable, nor can they be relinquished
  4. Natural
• 2 Common Objections to Rule Utilitarianism

  1. Act utilitarians state that a utilitarian who cares about happiness should be willing to violate rules in order to maximize happiness
  2. Non-consequentialists, although favoring rule utilitarianism more than act utilitarianism, still see that their moral principles are determined by their consequences (which they don't support)

  • Non-consequentialists argue that rule utilitarianism prioritizes utilitarian calculation over rights, failing to recognize them as fundamental moral factors.
• 2 Step Approach to Moral Decision Making


  1. Identify the relevant, obligations, ideals, and effects, (involved in specific moral issues)
  2. Decide which consideration deserves the most emphasis
• Kant's Categorical Imperative

  • an action is morally right only if the maxim is universalizable
  • YOU OUGHT TO DO X
• Eminent Domain

  • the ancient right of government to take property from an individual without consent for the common good