Anaphy Lec 3rd Shifting

• Key molecules required to build structures that enable organisms to function

  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Lipids
  • Nucleic Acids
  • Water
• Monomers


  Smaller units from which larger molecules are made
• Polymers


  Molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together in a chain
• Synthetic polymers


  • nylon
  • polyethylene
  • polyester
  • Teflon
  • epoxy
• Enzyme catalysis


  1. Substrate binding

  2. Transition state facilitation

  3. Catalysis

  4. Release
• Enzymes


  • They increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction
  • They increase reaction rates without altering the chemical equilibrium between reactants and products
• As temperature increases


  The rate of reaction increases
• The key molecules that are required to build structures that enable organisms to function are: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Water
• Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
• Enzyme catalysis involves substrate binding, transition state facilitation, catalysis, and then release
• Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction, and they increase reaction rates without altering the chemical equilibrium between reactants and products
• As temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases
• Blood is a liquid connective tissue containing cells and cell fragments, with 6-7 liters in an average human adult, that transports gases, nutrients, and waste products
• Functions of blood


  • Transport of gases, nutrients and waste products
  • Transport of processed molecules
  • Transport of regulatory molecules
  • Regulation of pH and osmosis
  • Maintenance of body temperature
  • Protection against foreign substances
  • Clot formation
• Oxygen


  One of the major gases controlled and regulated by the blood, transported by the blood, with normal pressure around 80-100mmHg, mild hypoxemia 61-79mmHg, and severe hypoxemia <60mmHg
• Blood gases


  • pCO2: 35 - 45 mmHg
  • pO2: 80 - 100mmHg
  • HCO3 (bicarbonate): 21 - 28 Eq/L
• Nutrients transported by blood

  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins (Albumin, Globulins)
  • Lipids (Phospholipids, TAGs, FA)
  • Lipoproteins (Chylomicrons, VLDL, HDL, LDL)
• The liver is capable of synthesizing cholesterol, which is a precursor for steroid hormones
• Henderson Hasselbalch Formula


  pH = pka/6.1 + log10 (Conjugate Base / Weak Acid)
• Waste products transported by blood

  • BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)
  • UA (Uric Acid)
  • Creatinine
  • Ammonia
• Osmosis


  Blood maintains osmosis by controlling the concentration of glucose and sodium
• Analytes contributing to osmosis

  • Glucose
  • Sodium
  • Urea
• Cellular protection by blood

  Blood cells, Lymphocytes, Plasma cells
• Humoral protection by blood


  Complement, Antibodies, Nitrous Oxide
• Composition of blood


  • 55% plasma
  • 45% formed elements or cellular material
• Major types of plasma proteins

  • Albumin
  • Globulins
• Plasma


  Liquid portion of whole blood, 95% water, contains ions/electrolytes, fibrinogen, and plasma proteins
• Serum


  Liquid portion of clotted blood, clearer than plasma
• Decrease of albumin in the bloodstream can cause edema due to kidney, liver, or heart disease
• Parts of the male reproductive system

  • Testicles
  • Conducting Tubules
  • Ducts (Epididymis, Vas deferens, Ejaculatory ducts)
  • Accessory glands (Seminal vesicles, Prostate, Bulbourethral gland)
  • Penis
• Sperm cells


  The "bread and butter" of the male reproductive system, found in semen with a concentration of 20 million per mL and a normal ejaculate volume of 2 to 5 mL
• Scrotum


  Protects the testicles, with layers of skin, loose connective tissue, smooth muscle, and dartos muscle that adjust the distance of the testicles from the body based on temperature
• Spermatogenesis


  The physiological process by which sperm are produced by the testicles, which need a temperature slightly lower than body temperature
• Penis


  The main copulatory organ of the male reproductive system, differing in structure if circumcised or not, with the foreskin also known as the prepuce
• Diseases of the male reproductive system

  • Gonorrhea
  • Syphilis
  • Genital warts
• Anatomy of the male reproductive system

  • Testicles
  • Epididymis
  • Vas deferens
  • Ampulla of the vas deferens
  • Shaft of the penis
  • Glands penis
• Seminiferous tubules


  Where spermatogenesis occurs, producing 2 x10⁸ or 200,000 sperm cells per day
• Stages of spermatogenesis


  • Spermatogonium
  • Primary spermatocyte
  • Secondary spermatocyte
  • Spermatid
• Sertoli cells


  Columnar epithelial cells that provide support and nutrition to the growing sperm cells
• Leydig cells


  Interstitial cells responsible for producing testosterone