Empire

• Impact of the First World War In 1914 world peace was disrupted by an outbreak of war between Germany AustriaHungary Turkey Britain France Russia Italy and the USA. Britain declared war on behalf of the entire Empire expecting a short rapid victory or negotiated settlement. The colonies sent 1.4 million men including the White dominions Indians and African tribes. The Empire supplied vital raw materials and food contributing to the British victory in 1918. The president of the dominions and nominated Indian representatives joined the war cabinet in 1917.
• Imperial Preference "In 1916 David Lloyd George replaced Asquith as Prime Minister leading a wartime coalition government. George prioritised using Empire resources introduced ""Imperial preference"" for suppliers and discussed future imperial self sufficiency schemes."
• Gallipoli and Vimy ridge Anzacs Australian and New Zealand forces significantly aided in the 1915 Gallipoli campaign and attempted invasion of Turkey while Canadian forces fought fiercely in Vimy Ridge in 1917.
• White dominions involvement in the war The White Dominions were eager to help Britain during the First World War with large numbers of volunteers signing up. Canada had over 4000 First Nations people with over fifty awarded medals for bravery. 1000 indigenous Australians and 2500 Maāori fought in colonial forces. Conscription was introduced in New Zealand in 1916 and Canada in 1917. Australian and New Zealand forces known as Anzacs played a crucial role in the Gallipoli campaign. Canadian forces fought at Vimy Ridge in northern France in April 1917. 136 000 White South African troops fought in the Middle East and on the Western Front. The war demonstrated loyalty to Britain and the Empire starting the debate on the longterm future. However conscription was not popular everywhere with French Canadians in Quebec viewing it as a probritish affair. The war had a terrible impact on the Dominions with 60 000 Australians 16 000 New Zealanders 61 000 Canadians and 7 000 South Africans dying.
• India involvement in the war India enlisted 1.3 million soldiers in the war effort four times as many as Canada Australia New Zealand and South Africa combined. India relied on volunteers and a third of troops in France were Indian or British soldiers. Indian troops played a major role in the Middle East campaign against Turkey. Over 74 000 Indians were killed in action and the Indian government contributed £100 million to British war efforts. Secretary of State Edwin Montagu promised more responsible selfgovernment and democratic representation for ordinary Indians.
• Africa invovlement in the War In 1914 Egypt became a protectorate recruiting 1.2 million Egyptians to defend the Middle East. 100 000 Egyptian soldiers fought in Europe with 50% killed. Black South Africans were excluded due to racial prejudice. This war influenced independence movements with the first Pan African Congress held in France in 1919.
• The Caribbean involvement in the war In 1915 the war office attempted to prevent men from the British West Indies from volunteering for service but allowed enlistment in Britain's Caribbean colonies. Over 15 000 men joined the British West Indies regiment relegated to dangerous support roles like digging trenches and working in ammunition dumps. They also joined the West India Regiment fighting against German forces in Africa.
• The West India Regiment The West India Regiment primarily composed of black Africans has been in operation since 1795 to suppress enslaved rebellions on British plantations in the Caribbean. During World War I the regiment consisting of volunteers from the Caribbean Nigeria Gold Coast and India successfully captured the German Colonies of Togoland and Cameroon in 1915.
• The League of Nations mandates The League of Nations was an international organisation established after World War II to prevent war by settling international disputes through negotiation. However the League's efforts were undermined by the USA's refusal to join the international army and the rise of fascism and Nazism. In November 1918 the Allies drafted postwar peace treaties including the Treaty of Versailles which stripped Germany of its former colonies. Similar rulings in the Ottoman empire treaty of Sèvres in 1920 and Treaty of Lausanne 1923. These treaties were mandated with territories allocated by the League to a country to be governed by that country on the League's behalf. Self determination was a guiding principle in the Treaty of Versailles which was advocated by US President Woodrow Wilson but at odds with empires like Britain and France. Japan also wanted to be part of the delegation at Versailles arguing that the British and French did not want to undermine the racial hierarchy in their empires.
• The League of Nations Mandates: Heirachy in Empire The categories were: A: territories seen as quite developed so independence might be a viable possibility in the relatively near future (Palestine and Mesopotamia) B: Territories which were considered to require a much longer period of guidance before independence could be contemplated (Tanganyika and British Togoland ) C: Territories where independence was no considered feasible (New Guinea and Samoa)
• The Palestinian Mandate Britain was eager to acquire the Palestinian mandate for economic and strategic reasons as it incorporated the main overland route to Britain's Indian and Asia empire and was close to the Suez Canal. Mesopotamia now modern day Iraq was valued for its oil resources. At the end of WW1 Palestine was unstable due to fighting between Britain and Turkey with Turkey enforcing conscription and seizing crops. In 1915 British and French diplomats Sir Mark Sykes and Georges Picot secretly plotted to divide the Middle East with France taking Southeastern Turkey Northern Iraq Syria and Lebanon and Britain acquiring Jordan South Iraq and Palestine. Both parties encouraged Arab rebellions against the Turkish Empire.
• The balfour declaration In 1917 Foreign Secretary Aurthur Balfour issued a declaration expressing sympathy for Jewish Zionist aspirations advocating for a Jewish national home in ancient Israel. The declaration did not constitute a separate Jewish state or undermine the rights of the Arab Palestinian population. The declaration was partly out of genuine sympathy for the Jewish plight and an attempt to win the support of the antiimperialist American public to accept British influence in Palestine. The Balfour declaration and Palestinian mandate faced challenges as the British sponsored Zionist commission arrived in Palestine in 1918 and the Muslim Christian Association formed between 1918 and 1920. The increasing Jewish immigration from the 1880s to Palestine led to violent clashes and a population of around 175 000 by 1931. Leading British politicians including Leo Amery and Lord Alfred Milner argued public support for Zionism not solely out of sympathy for the Jewish plight but also to win Jewish influence for allies particularly the USA and Russia.
• The Expansion and Contraction of Empire The British Empire reached its peak by 1920 but one significant loss was accelerated by the war. Ireland gained independence in 1922 after joining the UK in 1801 after centuries of violent colonisation. The Home Rule movement argued for Ireland to have its own parliament responsible for domestic affairs. However Gladstone failed to carry home rule through parliament and opposition in Ulster arose during the outbreak of war. The Dublin Easter Rising was quickly put down by the British followed by a period of guerrilla warfare that ended in 1921 when the AngloIrish treaty was signed. A new Irish free state was established and given Dominion status but its existence was contested by the six northern predominantly Protestant countries. The Irish free state Éire achieved full formal independence in the 1931 Statute of Westminster. In the aftermath of the War with Egypt in 1922 Britain declared a British protectorate and granted formal independence. British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the AngloEgyptian treaty in 1936 which allowed the armies to withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal Zone. Iraq a Mandate territory under British protection gained independence under King Faisal I in 1932 despite maintaining close economic and military ties with Britain.
• Colonial Invovlement in the war and its impact Conflict in the empire itself had been limited in the first world war but in the second world war the empire was a major theatre of war against the Germans Italians and Japanese Key areas of conflict included Southeast Asia and Northern Africa and against the involvement of the colonies led to new demands for greater autonomy in the aftermath of war
• Southeast Asia "In 1942 Japan seized major European imperial possessions in Southeast Asia including Singapore Hong Kong Malaya and Burma. The loss of Singapore led to the largest surrender of British troops in history. Japan seized Hong Kong overrand Malaya and Burma and appeared to attack India. An attempted Japanese invasion of India in 1944 was narrowly averted and British and allied forces were able to roll back Japanese conquests. The success of the Japanese ended the myth of ""White Invincibility"" and gave new confidence to independence movements across Southeast Asia. 30 000 Indian trips were captured by the Japanese in Singapore leading to the formation of the Indian National Army (INA) in 1943."
• North Africa North Africa became a crucial battleground between Britain Italy and Germany to maintain their influence in Egypt and access to Suez and oil in the Middle East. The Battle of El Alamein in November 1942 drove Germans back allowing Egyptians and Palestinians to fight for independence from British control.
• The Battle of El Alamein This was a battle in Egypt in OctoberNovember 1942 in which the British defeated the German Army and began the process of sweeping Germany out of North Africa and Securing British control of Egypt and British interests in the Middle East.
• British Withdrawal from India and the Middle east In 1945 Britain emerged victorious but faced a weakened economic position. The first majority Labour government led by Clement Attlee was elected. Labour politicians were more sceptical about the empire questioning its morality. Independence movements especially in India and the Middle East grew stronger.
• Post War Labour Government (1945-51) In the postwar election of July 1945 the Labour party won a landslide majority with 145 votes surprising conservatives under Winston Churchill. This victory reflected voters' belief in Labor's success in rebuilding Britain and implementing social reforms.
• India the Interwar Years "Indian nationalism gained popularity in the 20s and 30s leading to the Indian Act 1919 which allowed for a limited system of selfgovernment. The British sought to satisfy demands for greater Indian representation and adopted a twin track strategy combining reforms and a ruthless response to mass resistance. The Rowlatt Act 1919 a tougher strand gave authorities harsh powers to arrest protesters against British rule. This tactic was counterproductive resulting in the Amritsar Massacre in 1919. The British increased the number of eligible Indians to vote and strengthened elected provincial assemblies in favour of complete Indian independence. In the 1930s the British retreated to their ""divide and rule"" policy playing on growing divisions within the nationalist movement. The All India Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah wanted a separate independent Muslim state (Pakistan) while the Hindu Congress movement led by Mahatma Gandhi sought a united Indian state. The British favoured the Muslim League arguing for a Muslim homeland within a federal India. They suggested divisions between Hindus and Muslims proving the necessity of continuing British rule as the alternative was likely to be a bloody HinduMuslim civil war."
• India and the second world war "In 1939 nationalists suspended protests to support the British War effect. However Britain's defeats in South East Asia in 1942 fueled the Hindu Congress demanding immediate reforms. British anxieties increased after the Indian National Army emerged leading to a policy of repression and imprisonment of congress leaders. In March 1942 Churchill promised Indians full dominion status but this was insufficient. In August 1942 Gandhi and other congress leaders launched a ""Quit India"" campaign calling for British withdrawal from India. Gandhi and others were arrested and spent the rest of the war in prison."
• Post War withdrawl from India The Labour government of 1945 decided to grant India independence due to fear of violent resistance the weakened pro independence sentiment and the cost of maintaining the country's cotton export. The INA's activities weakened the pro independence sentiment making it unreliable and expensive. The new Viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten instructed the government to bring about India's independence as soon as possible. With growing tensions between Muslims and Hindus the date for independence was completed. At least one million people died in violence leaving a bitter legacy between Pakistan and India. British attempts to keep India in the Empire through limited concessions of democracy and repression failed and even the grant of independence proved messy.
• Burma In the years leading up to 1947 Burma began decolonisation a region occupied by Japan during World War II. The AntiFacist Organisation (AFO) initially supported Japanese efforts against the British but switched sides due to the British/Allies victory. The AFO became the AntiFacist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) and Lord Maountbatten the Allied commander in Southeast Asia recognized Aung San's support and agreed to include the Burma National Army in the new army. In September 1946 civil disobedience and increasing ungovernability led to the replacement of Sir Reginald DornmanSmith with more liberal Sir Hubert Rance who admitted Aung San onto the ruling executive council but placed him in charge. In December 1946 British Prime Minister Clement Attlee confirmed that his government was unwilling to commit enough troops to impose British authority. Burma became independent in 1948.
• The Anti Fascist Organisation (AFO) and Anti Fascist people’s freedom League (AFPEL) Burma was liberated from Japanese control in 194445 by British forces and the AntiFascits Organisation a coalition of Burmese forces led by Aung San the Burmese Communist party and the People's Revolutionary Party which resisted British imperial rule in 1945.
• Middle East The British faced significant pressure in Palestine due to the Nazi repression of European Jews in the 1930s and the Holocaust. In 1945 ArabJewish relations deteriorated rapidly and the British were unable to limit Jewish immigration. Two major problems were the support from America and international opinion for Jewish settlement in Palestine and the outbreak of Jewish terrorism against British troops. Britain sought negotiations between Arab and Jewish leaders proposing three possible solutions: a unitary state provincial autonomy or partitions of Palestine. However the Arabs rejected these solutions as they would still lead to Arab rule. In February 1947 the British government referred to the UN which supported partition partly due to US pressure. To avoid alienating the Arab world the British decided to withdraw from Palestine by May 1948 and hand control over to the UN commission.
• The British Withdrawal from Palestine In September 1947 Britain faced significant economic challenges due to the Sterling crisis spending over £100 million on governing Palestine since January 1945 and the loss of over 330 British soldiers in the conflict making it difficult to maintain this commitment.
• Colonial Policy and Administration in India "Between 1919 and 1947 the empire sought to maintain unity and resist nationalism through colonial policy particularly in India. This led to the creation of a system limiting self-government and establishing a ""Dyarchy a rule where power is divided between two centres of authority."
• The Government of India Act 1919 The Viceroy held control over major areas like defence and foreign affairs and his council was appointed but required to defend its actions. The legislative council was divided into Lower House (Legislative Assembly) with 104 elected out of 144 and Upper House (The Council of State) with 34 elected members out of 60. Provincial councils were run by elected Indian Ministers responsible for local government health education and agriculture. Britain viewed these reforms as concessions to Indian Congress critics hoping they would weaken popular support for a system of dominion self-government.
• The Simon Commission 1929-30 The review of the India Act recommended a federal system of government across India incorporating both British rule and the Princely state. Provinces would have power while the British Viceroy would oversee defence internal security and foreign affairs.
• The Round Table Conferences 1930 and 1931 India's independence movement faced opposition in two London conferences in 1930 and 1931. Gandhi imprisoned represented the Congress party at the first conference. No agreement was reached due to British self-governing Dominion status doubting non-white leaders' competence and concerns about India's strategic and economic importance to Britain.
• The Government of India Act 1935 The Act created a Federation of India allowing provinces to self govern and expanding the franchise from 7 to 35 million people. It opposed the Congress party but fell short of white dominions' independence. Princely states rejected federal India to maintain their independence. In 1939 members of Congress-controlled ministries in provinces resigned in opposition to Indian participation. Britain imposed direct rule and dealt with independence protests with repressions including arresting independence leaders. In 1947 British colonial policy failed and India became an independent state.
• Colonial Policy and administration in Africa Between 1919 and 1939 Britain's African colonies were divided into two categories: indirectly ruled colonies with puppet rulers including most West African colonies like Tanganyika Uganda Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia and directly ruled with large European settlers numbers through their own officials and some representation for the white settler population in Southern Rhodesia and Kenya. The Union of South Africa was a stronger example of a white settler colony enjoying Dominion status since 1910. British policy and administration in these colonies developed as follows.
• Colonies under “indirect” British Rule Colonial policy aimed to promote economic and social development in colonies enhancing economic value and improving local living standards. Initiatives were implemented in East and West Africa such as the Gezira cotton scheme in Sudan which increased cotton production through dam building and irrigation. In East Africa £10 million was allocated for rail and dock facilities while West Africa invested in schools and educational facilities. Agricultural research stations were established in colonies across the continent. However these initiatives were limited and were primarily selffinanced with major projects funded by local taxation. The Colonial Development Act 1929 allocated £1 million of British treasury funds for development projects. African dissatisfaction with imperial development and limited development was expressed through strikes in copper mines of Northern Rhodesia.
• The White Settler Colonies "In 1920 white settlers in Kenya pressured the British government to grant them some degree of self government. The 20-30 000 strong white settler community dominated the Legislative Council and excluded Indian Settlers and the Kikuyu tribe from the Northern Highlands. White settler farmers became wealthy through tea and coffee while the Kikuyu were taxed and banned from commercial production. Many migrated to major cities like Nairobi and Mombasa. This led to the first stirrings of African nationalism among the Kikuyu which led to the ""Devonshire Declaration"" in 1923 emphasising the importance of respecting African interests. Despite efforts to improve African agriculture and education momentum built behind political movements among both Africans and Indian settlers. In South Rhodesia the white population also took political power and won selfgovernment in 1923. The Union of South Africa's promises to protect ethnic minorities' rights were eroded and the white minority established control over South Africa's internal affairs by 1930."
• The administration of the British Mandate in Palestine "The British colonial administration in Palestine faced the task of maintaining strategic importance and internal stability while also maintaining a military presence. This was challenging due to financial strains and disagreements between the London government and Palestinian authorities. High Commissioner Herbet Samuel attempted to reconcile growing Jewish communism with Palestinian Arabs but ethnic tensions prevented cooperation. Religious division led to problems over landholding with most Palestinian Arabs as poor farmers renting land from absentee landowners. The Jewish Nation fund helped buy land for Jewish settlement leading to Arab evictions. ProJewish feelings in Britain and the USA forced the government to back down. In 1933 Nazi persecution in Germany accelerated Jewish immigration into Palestine creating further problems for British Administrators. In 1936 the British sent 20 000 troops to Palestine to deal with Arab rioting and attacks on Jews. In 1937 the Peel report recommended partitioning Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish areas with the British retaining authority over Jerusalem and a few holy places. Both proposals were opposed by the Arabs. In 193739 Britain adopted a policy of repression to deal with escalating violence. However in 1939 under pressure from Nazi aggression in Europe Britain called for a Palestinian state where Jews would enjoy the right to a ""national homeland."" Jewish immigration was restricted to 15 000 per year for five years with plans for Palestine to be declared an independent state in ten years. Under pressure from Nazi aggression in Europe Jewish organisations were forced to accept the British position and Britain entered World War II aware that its policy reversal had outraged Jews without satisfying the Arabs."
• Administration of British Mandate in Iraq (Mesopotamia) In the 1920s British colonial policy focused on managing internal conflicts between ethnic groups to reduce administration costs. The Cairo Conference of 1921 allowed local self government while maintaining British control over military and foreign affairs. The AngloIraqi Treaty of 1933 confirmed Faisal I of the Hashemite dynasty as King a respected Muslim and Arab leader who enjoyed good relations with the British. Senior British advisors were appointed to most government departments ensuring British control over Iraqi affairs and military bases. The Anglo Treaty of 1930 promised full consultation on foreign policy matters. Although the treaties were only a small step towards Iraq's independence in 1932 British influence remained particularly in the oil industry.
• Oil Before WW1 the British negotiated a concession with the Ottoman Empire to control the Turkish Petroleum Company in Mosul which had a 20% share in the company. After the war Mosul became part of the Iraq mandate and the Iraqis were initially promoted to a 20% share. However the British did not honour this and the Iraqis had to accept British terms.
• British Relations with the Dominons and the Statue of Westminister The Dominions played a significant role in the First World War leading to aspirations of control over their affairs. British authorities were concerned about the strength of feeling in Canada and South Africa which could result in a loss of British influence. The concept of the commonwealth emerged allowing dominions and other colonies to gradually become independent nations while maintaining special relations with Britain. This idea was given substance in the Balfour Declaration of 1926 which recognized that certain dominions should become independent nations and laws passed in Britain could not be enforced without the permission of their own parliaments. The act came into effect in Canada South Africa and the Irish Free State. It was ratified by the parliaments of Australia and New Zealand becoming law in Australia in 1942 and New Zealand in 1947. Newfoundland never ratified it and reverted to crown colony status. These developments were portrayed by politicians and media as evidence of the civilised nature of the British Empire.
• Imperial Defence During the war years Britain faced economic difficulties the Great Depression and increased burdens in defending its empire. New aggressive regimes emerged in Europe and Asia including Imperial Japan and Fascist Italy. Nationalist independence movements in India increased the need for military resources. The British government adopted a policy of appeasement to defuse tensions with Nazi Germany and Fascist demands. The Indian Army modernised and built up Singapore as a naval base. However underestimated ambition from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Britain eventually went to war against Germany and failed to reinforce Singapore adequately. Britain's imperial defence policy proved a failure.
• Appeasement British governments in the 1930s implemented appeasement policy surrendering to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy's territorial demands believing they were reasonable politicians and could be satisfied by such concessions.