research methods

• Research design


  Select the research problem/topic to be investigated

  State aim

  Develop hypothesis/research questions

  Operationalize concepts

  Choose most suitable method(s)

  Select sample if using ppts

  Ensure ethical guidelines are adhered to

  Conduct pilot study

  Carry out research

  Analyse the results

  Prepare a report

  Try & get published
• Pilot study


  A preliminary small scale study that researchers conduct in order to help them decide how best to conclude a large scale research project.
• Purpose of pilot study

  Identifying & refining research question/set of question identity Identifying & refining a hypothesis/set of hypotheses.

  Identifying & evaluating a sample population.

  Testing research instruments.

  Evaluating & deciding upon research methods.

  Identifying & resolving as many potential problems/issues as possible.

  Estimating the time & costs required for the project.

  Gauging whether the research goals & design are realistic.

  Producing preliminary results that can help secure funding.
• Sample


  A smaller, representative group drawn from the target population.
• Sampling frame


  The collection of people the researcher will choose their sample from
• Sampling methods


  Random, systematic, stratified, quota, snowballing, volunteer, opportunity, purposive
• Random sampling


  Everyone in the population has the same chance of getting chosen, eg. picking names out of hats
• Systematic sampling


  Picking every nth person in the sampling frame

  A form of random sampling
• Stratified sampling


  Sample population is divided into subgroups based on demographic characteristics of the national population

  A form of random sampling
• Quota sampling


  Researchers divide the population into groups and then randomly choose participants from each group.

  A form of non-random sampling
• Snowball sampling


  Researcher finds a few ppts & then asks them to find more ppts.

  A form of non-random sampling
• Volunteer sampling


  Ppts self-select to become part of a study by volunteering when asked/responding to an ad.

  A form of non-random sampling
• Opportunity sampling


  A research selects ppts based on their availability.

  A form of non-random sampling
• Purposive sampling


  Researchers choose individuals that fit the nature of the research.

  A form of non-random sampling.
• Advantages of random sampling

  Quick & inexpensive

  No researcher bias
• Disadvantages of random sampling

  May end up with an unrepresentative sample.

  Can be difficult to gain access to whole target population
• Advantages of systematic sampling

  Inexpensive & quick

  No researcher bias
• Disadvantages of systematic sampling

  May end up with an unrepresentative sample

  Can be difficult to gain access to whole target population
• Advantages of stratified sampling


  Accurately reflects the target populations

  No researcher bias
• Disadvantages of stratified sampling

  More time-consuming than other methods

  Complex for large target populations - people may fit in more than on sub-group
• Advantages of quota sampling

  Allows a small sample to still be representative of the population

  No sampling frame required

  Quick, easy and inexpensive
• Disadvantages of quota sampling

  Risk of researcher bias

  May not be representative of the target population
• Advantages of snowball sampling

  Obtains ppts you wouldn't usually have access to.

  No sampling frame required
• Disadvantages of snowball sampling

  Sample not likely to be a good cross-section from population because it's friends of friends - unrepresentative
• Advantages of volunteer sampling

  More ethical as they chose to take part.
• Disadvantages of volunteer sampling

  May be unrepresentative of target population - those who take part in the research may not be typical of the target population the researcher is interested in
• Advantages of opportunity sampling

  Easy to carry out & quick

  Inexpensive
• Disadvantages of opportunity sampling

  Risk of researcher bias.

  May be unrepresentative of target population.
• Advantages of purposive sampling


  Useful for research targeting one characteristic.
• Disadvantages of purposive sampling

  Can give misleading evidence

  Risk of researcher bias
• Longitudinal study


  An observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

  Can extend years or decades.
• Advantages of longitudinal study


  Show patterns of a variable over time - researchers can learn cause & effect. Can also discover the connections between a variety of events over a long period of time.

  Allow for clear focus & validity - longitudinal studies see how a particular end state or set of circumstances would to be - high levels of validity.

  Flexible - their focus can be shifted while data is being collected.
• Disadvantages of longitudinal studies

  Suffer from ppt drop out - while studying the same group of people for possibly years, some ppts will drop out because of death, refusal, etc - cuts down useable data so decreases validity.

  Data gathered is unreliable - longitudinal data is collected at pre-determined periods, so we cannot know what happens in between these points or the effects these happens may have. Ppt conditioning may have occurred - ppts unknowingly change their qualitative responses to better fit what they consider the intended goal of the research (Hawthorne effect if using observations).

  Time consuming & expensive - A long period of time is needed to gather the data & then make conclusions/patterns
• Practical factors


  funding, access to ppts, costs, time, skills of researcher
• Funding


  The sociologists need to obtain funding to conduct the research.
• Access to ppts


  Sociologists will find it difficult to gain access to some groups of people which will influence who & what they research
• Costs


  Difficult types of methods cost different amounts of money
• Time


  Linked to costs.

  Some methods are very time-consuming, so may not be possible due to funding.
• Skills of the researcher

  Interviewers need good inter-personal skills.

  The sex, age & social class of the researcher will need to match the group they're trying to investigate
• Ethical issues in research

  No one should suffer any harm as a result of the research - protection.

  Researchers should be honest at al time during the study - no deception.

  Ppts' privacy & confidentially should be protected - consent & brief, confidentiality.

  No laws should be broken - protection.