key sociologists

• Laslett - Life chances


  Suggested it was better to see age in 3 ages of life approach:

  First age: a period of socialisation

  Second age: a phase of work & childrearing

  Third age: a time of independence
• Milne et al - Life chances


  Agrees that the idea of one homogeneous group - the elderly - masks the reality. There are 2 distinct groups: those who have just retired & those over 80.

  Used the term 'grey power' to refer to the consumption habits & patterns of those over 65.
• Pilcher - Life chances


  Argued that there should be a division when discussing the 'young old', which she stated was 65 to 74, & the 'middle-aged old', aged between 75 and 84, & the 'old old', which is 85-plus.
• Moore


  Dressed up as an old person to find out what it would be like to be perceived as being old.

  Her findings were that assumptions were made about her perceived age, eg. that she was deaf & would be easily confused.

  One conclusion was that 'perhaps the worst thing about ageing may be the overwhelming sense that everything around you is letting you know that you are not terribly important any more'.

  Shows that old people are disadvantaged not necessarily by their physical old age but by other people's stereotypical assumptions based on their appearance of being old.
• Johnson & Bytheway


  Defined ageism as the offensive exercise of power through reference to age.

  This can be institutionalised, through organisational & legal practices, or based on stereotypical prejudice or even through well-meaning assumptions.
• Jones et al - Work & employment


  The idea of retirement has changed dramatically - it has transformed from being seen as a time of social redundancy & loneliness to being seen as a potentially positive part of the life course.

  20 in-depth qualitative interviews; respondents had previously worked in executive & higher management posts & had recently taken early retirement as a matter of choice.

  Three main themes emerged:

  1. The respondents saw the fact that they had more choice in arranging their retirement as an indication of their higher status.

  2. The respondents described early retirement very positively as a time of creative renewal & freedom with opportunity to pursue new interests & challenges.

  3. The respondents were aware that they were fortunate in comparison to both past & future generations who faced more unemployment, reduced pensions & insecurity.
• Hepworth & Featherstone - Disparity of experience


  All of the discussions on inequality & difference need unpicking.

  The groups of elderly & youth are too simplistic.
• Marsh & Keating - Disparity of experience


  Noted that different cultures attach different cultural meanings & values to different age groups
• Kagan - Age & culture around the world


  'Activity & aging in a Colombian peasant village' study.

  Observed that the old tended to remain socially & economically active, as far as physically possible, throughout old age.

  They didn't constitute a gerontocracy, but were nevertheless seen as valued & respected members of their communities.
• Gentlemen - Age & culture around the world


  Outlines a day in a care home .

  Shows how, even with good care & a safe environment, the lack of visits from relatives & the monotony make it an unpleasant experience.

  The day of a resident is marked by getting up, eating or taking medicine.
• Dowd - The digital generational gap


  Increase in technology can cause some elderly to feel they are becoming 'strangers in their own land
• Parsons (Functionalism)


  Focuses on society's role in managing rebellious youth or dependent elderly as the cause of inequality at these times.

  Focused on youth being a time for individuals to grow up & learn their new adult roles, which are imperative for society's stability.

  Analogy of a bridge, youth culture being a bridge from childhood to adulthood - explains that while some youth behave in a way that seems dysfunctional to society, it can actually allow for a more integrated society later.
• Eisenstadt (Functionalism)


  Agreed that differential age groups learn new roles that lead to further cohesion & solidarity in society.
• Cummings & Henry (Functionalism) - Disengagement theory


  Disengagement theory starts with the idea that all people will die.

  With ageing, a person's abilities are likely to deteriorate, as this happens, there is a mutual need for the individual to be relieved of some of their responsibilities & roles.

  People leaving their role in society causes a gap that must be filled for social stability to be maintained - A process of disengagement helps to manage that possible social stability.

  Eg, having a retirement age allows a managed disengagement, allowing others to take on the roles that the elderly can no longer fulfil.
• Engels (Marxism) - Reserve army of labour


  A reserve army of labour was a necessary part of capitalism - some members of society are a secondary source of labour.
• Marx (Marxism) - Reserve army of labour


  Stated this was either the unemployed or the under-employed; however, it can be applied to other groups such as the young & the elderly - these groups can be used at boom times as temporary or flexible labour.
• Phillipson (Marxism) - Reserve army of labour


  Claimed that the elderly have historically been used as a reserve army of labour, but that this role has grown in recent years.

  So clearly, age inequality can be seen as a social construction used to benefit the bourgeoisie.
• Gramsci (Neo-Marxism) - Legitimation of authority


  False consciousness explains that people don't realise their exploitation often through concessions they receive, child benefits & pensions act as a form of this.

  This creates a form of dependency, legitimating the need for the powers of authority - thus the elderly & youth don't question their exploitation through the labour market.
• Townsend & Phillipson (Marxism) - Political economy theory


  Explain the inequality faced by the elderly.

  Argue that focusing on inequality as meeting the needs of the economy places the elderly in a negative position as a burden on the economy.

  Capitalism needs to continually renew its workforce to ensure greater profit by using young workers who may be more productive.

  To serve the needs of capitalism, this means having a system where the elderly are institutionally marginalised - this happens through a process of institutionalised dependency.

  Eg, through the elderly being made to retire, the needs of the economy are then met as younger, more productive employees take their place.

  In reality, a forced dependency then takes place, whereby the elderly become dependent on society as they are denied access to work - this lowers their status.
• Arber & Ginn (Feminism)


  When looking at women & inequality, factors such as age will affect their power & status.

  Older women face inequalities that older men do not.
• Itzin (Feminism)


  Claimed that women face a double standard.

  Men's status is directly related to employment, whereas women's status is linked to their reproductive cycle -in a patriarchal society, women's status devalues after childbearing age.

  Older women, regardless of wealth & background have a lower status.

  Older women feel immense pressure to fight the signs of ageing (cosmeticisation) which is capitalised on by many industries. Ageing men don't necessarily find the same pressures.
• Daly (Feminism)


  Wrote that cosmeticisation had similarities to many global practices that women are made to comply with, eg. FGM, in that women are expected to confirm to certain physical standards, but no such expectations are placed on men.
• Weber (Weberian theory) - Market position


  If someone doesn't have the skills required in the marketplace, eg. the elderly, who don't have necessary technological skills, then they will suffer low status.

  However, if someone is upper class & becomes elderly, this will explain why they won't suffer the same loss of status, as their financial resources mean that they can continue to live a comfortable life regardless of their skills.
• Parkin - Negatively privileged status groups


  Discussed the idea that some suffer in negatively privileged status groups - the elderly are often socially, segregated; in the media, through invisibility from positive portrayal, in employment through retirement.
• Havinghurst - Activity theory


  Published activity theory - idea that staying mentally and physically active will increase one's happiness - in critique of disengagement theory, arguing the inequality is more about social interaction than just age.
• Statham - Activity theory


  Conducted research on grandparents providing childcare may mean that continued social interaction may change the inequalities faced by some elderly who are isolated.
• Turner - Exchange theory


  Argues that age discrimination is best understood in terms of status.

  In Western societies, both the elderly & the young become stigmatised due to not having what it takes to gain high status.

  Using a 'reciprocity-maturation curve of ageing' - it is simple to see that if groups are dependent, they then have low status.
• Victor (Interactionism) - Labelling


  If the elderly are labelled as 'useless, lonely, dependent & unable to learn', then perhaps those stereotypes become reality.
• Cohen (Interactionism) - Labelling

  His work on moral panics would be a relevant explanation for the inequality that young people face in the media.
• Polemus (Postmodernism)


  Focuses on youth being a non-homogeneous group shopping at the 'supermarket of style'.
• Laczko & Phillipson (Postmodernism) - Old age as a positive time of life


  Researched early retirement & found that the inequality faced by some elderly people was due to wealth & not ageing itself.
• Featherstone & Hepworth (Postmodernism) - Old age as a positive time of life


  Led to the idea that traditional explanations of age inequality focus too much on imaginary boundaries of age.
• Blaikie (Postmodernism) - Old age as a positive time of life


  Discusses the idea of positive ageing, which agrees with the idea of a fourth age filled with active but leisure-based pursuits.
• J.B Priestley; author (Postmodernism) - The mask of old age


  'Ageing was like someone had kidnapped him & made him old, yet behind his appearance he had the same thoughts as when he was younger' - similar to wearing a mask: one thing on the outside, another on the inside.
• Biggs (Postmodernism) - New technology & the fight against ageism


  New technology & cosmetic surgery allows some to continually re-create themselves - may mean that age discrimination against the elderly is just based on the 'mask', it is impossible to tell, as those who can afford to re-create themselves may suffer less ageism due to other factors, eg. wealth.