gould

• Binet - believed that intelligence is not a fixed quantity and that it can be improved by further help, subsequently Binet's ideas have led to the development of intelligence quotient (IQ)
• what do hereditarians believe about intelligence?

  individual differences are mainly due to genetic factors, that a society could using mass intelligence testing, scientifically breed a group of people (referred to as eugenics)
• aim

  to reveal basic problems in attempts to measure intelligence, specifically in the research carried out by Robert Yerkes' in 1921.

  aim of Yerkes' study was to devise a scientific way to test the natural trait of intelligence on a mass scale
• research method

  Gould reviews and critiques Yerkes' methodology - psychometric testing of intelligence -> large scale psychometric test
• participants

  1.75 million army recruits in the USA during WW1, recruits involved

  • white americans
  • black americans
  • european immigrants

  all from a range of backgrounds and religions - recruited by opportunity sampling
• procedure

  3 types of tests

  • army alpha - 8 part test for literate recruits. included questions about analogies, filling in the missing number and unscrambling a sentence. common in modern IQ tests
  • army beta - pictorial test for those who failed the alpha, had 7 parts included running a maze, number work and picture completion task, instructions writtin in english - 3 out of 7 parts answer had to be given in writing
  • individual examinations - recruits who failed the other two tests - given an individual spoken examination
• issues with the tests

  conditions were unsatisfactory as time allowed was insufficient and panic surrounded the procedure, those unused to the written word or number, the event must have been bewildering

  reliance on cultural knowledge - findings used supported the idea of genetic differences between 'races' which passed immigration restriction laws as a result
• inconsistencies within the procedure

  1. many were illiterate in english were still allocated to the alpha test and scored zero or near to zero
  2. Yerkes overestimated levels of literacy - queues of beta test became very long leading to inappropriate re-allocation of men to the alpha test
  3. failures on alpha test were not recalled to take beta test - recent immigrants with a poor grasp of english and black men not given much formal education were unable to score on alpha test
  4. beta test required use of a pencil and to read and write - many couldn't
• results - mean mental age

  white american - 13.04

  black american - 10.41

  russian immigrant - 11.34

  italian immigrant - 11.01

  polish immigrant 10.74
• results

  previous research set average mental age of white americans to 16, therefore 13 was the edge of moronity

  differences were matched with fairness of skin

  findings influenced the assignment of different military ranks

  • every individual was give a grade from A to E, with plus and minus e.g. C- indicated a low average intelligence, suitable for the position of ordinary private in the army; D indicated a person rarely suited for tasks requiring special skill, forethought, resourcefulness or sustained alertness
• conclusions

  1. intelligence is an innate quality with a hereditary basis - possible to grade individuals by the colour of their skin
  2. average man of most nations could be considered a 'moron'
  3. mental testing of this kind is valid, scientific with wider implications for society

  Gould believes the prejudice of testing materials and methodology invalidates conclusions drawn by Yerkes

  army mental tests were a product of their time and results were used to support racist beliefs and practices
• research method - strength

  attempt to objectively and scientifically measure levels of intelligence

  simple to administer and score alpha and beta tests, allowing huge amount of data to be collected
• research method - weakness

  assumes intelligence is fixed and unchanging over time and across different circumstances - other research has shown its not always the case

  Yerkes worked on the assumption that intelligence was distinct and measurable concept 0 others argue it does not exist as a single, definable quality
• sample - strength

  1.75 million army recruits - highly representative due to large sample

  sample included recruits from a wide range of ages, backgrounds and localities across USA as ppts did not volunteer or were selected specifically for mental tests
• sample - weakness

  ethnocentric - mass testing revealed heavy bias as tests relied on culturally specific knowledge and were not pure measures of intelligence
• quantitative data - strength

  person's intelligence is numerically express in the form of an overall intelligence score - straightforward comparison with other people and establishes a group 'norm'

  can detect abnormally low scores of individuals who need additional support
• quantitative data - weakness

  political tool to further racist ideas and control immigration

  focusing on quantifying intelligence via fixed-choice questions fails to capture a true picture of an individual's intellect
• ethics - weakness

  little warning or instructions prior to testing

  no mention of obtaining consent or allowing recruits the right to withdraw

  conditions appeared stressful
• reliability - strength

  mental tests used by Yerkes were standardised in their presentations and used a detailed mark scheme - consistent in assessing each completed test -> reliable
• reliability - weakness

  differences in conditions which men sat the tests depending on what camp they were in

  inconsistency in selection procedures for alpha or beta tests - systematically disadvantages black americans and recently immigrated recruits
• validity - weakness

  did not take into account cultural biases in tests which advantaged middle-class whites and reduced validity

  tests systematically advantaged those who were most literate, had spent longest in school and familiar with test-taking and using a pencil

  recruits not in the USA for long also at a major disadvantage as some test items relied on knowledge specific to american culture
• practical applications

  work of Yerkes had a significant impact in the field of psychometric testing within different social and political contexts

  some sections used in the army alpha include components essential in modern IQ tests

  IQ tests have practical application in schools and used to identify those with additional needs and the academically gifted