Chemistry

• Test for water by adding solution to anhydrous copper sulfate. The result will be a blue colour change if water is present.
• You can test for water by putting cobalt chloride paper in it. In the presence of water the paper turns pink.
• Filtration and chlorination are used to treat water.
• Air is composed of 78% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and a small amount of other inert gasses.
• The main air pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
• Carbon monoxide is formed through incomplete combustion of carbon.
• Incomplete combustion is $C +$$0^2 -->C+$$CO+$$CO^2+$$H^2O$
• Sulfur dioxide is a gas that is released from burning fossil fuels and is a major cause of acid rain
• Catalytic converters are made of platinum, paladium and rhodium. They convert carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen,
• Rusting is the chemical reaction of iron and oxygen.
• Some barrier methods to prevent rusting is painting, Oiling, Plastic coatings and electroplating.
• Another method to prevent rust is sacrificial protection, where a more reactive metal is put on the iron to react first.
• Nitrogen makes plants greener and grow more chloroplast.
• Phosphorus makes plants more resistant against disease and increases seed and fruits.
• Potassium increases root growth and quality. quality
• The Haber process produces ammonia by first adding methane to steam, then making hydrogen and carbon monoxide through that. Then the pressure is increased and some hydrogen and nitrogen form ammonia.
• Plant stems contain lignin to stay upright.
• The xylem of a root is in vascular bundles.
• The phloem is always on the outside of a stem and xylem inside.
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the

  stomata.
• Water leaves mesophyll cells, into air spaces created by irregular shape of spongy mesophyll

  cells, then diffuses out of the stomata.

  Wilting occurs if water loss is greater than water uptake – cells become flaccid, tissues become

  limp and plant no longer supported.
• Transpiration transports ions to the plant, transports water, keeps the stem upright and cools the plant.
• metals are malleable, conduct heat, ductile, lustrous, high density + melting point, form positive ions and form basic oxides.
• Non-metals do not conduct heat or electricity, are brittle, dull, low density and melting point, form negative ions and form acidic oxides.
• Concentration = amount of solute / volume of solvent
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, same proton number, different nucleon number, same properties, but different masses.
• A chemical compound contains two or more elements in a fixed proportion by mass.
• Hydrogen:Oxygen = $66.3/33.3: 33.3/33.3$ = 2:1
• Solid to gas is sublimation, gas to solid is desublimation
• Melting and boiling points are unique to pure substances.
• As the heat and kinetic energy of a particle increases, the intermolecular bonds will be less able to keep the particles together, breaking and becoming a higher state.
• Diffusion in liquid and gas is a result of the random movement of particles from a high to low concentration without the use of energy.
• Methods of purification rely on physical differences, such as size, shape, and charge.
• Ionic compounds have high m/b points, solid at room temperature, evaporate easily, soluble in water and conduct electricity when molten.
• Covalent bonds have low b/m points, liquid or gas at room temperature, not soluble in water and doesn't conduct electricirty.
• Particles in solids are packed together tightly in a regular arrangement and vibrate in fixed positions.
• Particles in liquids are packed closely together but are free to move past each other.
• Particles in gasses are well separated in a random arrangement and vibrate at high speeds.
• Particles in solids have the least energy and gasses the most.
• The strong intermolecular forces of attraction between solids particles keeps them together, liquids with weaker forces and gasses with no forces.