Ideology, religion and science

• what is science?


  Science is a brief system that suggests that scientific method is the only means of gaining true knowledge about the world

  It has a strict commitment to only empirical evidence which has been collected under conditions of objectivity and value freedom

  It rejects any allegations that claims to knowledge that cannot be explained by the scientific method
• why is science so unique as a belief system according to Lomas?

  Highlights how today society has absolute trust in science when he states that the following science tells you that any object continues to move in a straight line with unchanging speed and less force ax on it. Unless you are an astronaut, you have never seen this happen and yet you believe it true. Your eyes how are you? That chair is a solid object that you can safely sit on but science tells you that the material of the chair is made up of small atoms with spaces in between them you could theory fall through these spaces.
• why is science so unique?


  Empirical - objects are physical and measurable

  objective - no room for personal bias preferences bias

  cumulative- knowledge builds on old knowledge- linear progression

  an open belief system- knowledge/ information is open to scrutiny (testing and retesting ) allows for verification and refutation
• what does Popper suggest are the scientific methods to prove a theory? (card one)


  1. hypothesis formation- formulating ideas informed guess about the possible explanations for some phenomena
  2. Falsification- testing a hypothesis against evidence, prove wrong as one exception can prove a hypothesis false. If a theory disprove a better one can be created Popper suggested this helped progression of science.
  3. prediction - through establishing cause an effect relationship, predictions of what will happen in the future can be established
• what does Popper suggest are the scientific methods to prove a theory? (cared 2)?


  4. theory formation- if passed all steps hypothesis is probably true. may become a part of scientific theory

  5. scrutiny - a scientific theory will be scrutinised by others, will stand only until new evidence comes showing theory is false
• Which can be seen as an open belief ?


  Science can be viewed as an open system as it is open to questioning and testing falsifying by others and they subsequently change as a result of these processes
• Which can be seen as a closed belief system ?

  Ideology and religion are seen as close belief systems this is because they assert and under changing body of belief and make claims that cannot be disproven and Any evidence which attempts to Change these beliefs is dismissed or mode is fit into existence
• problems for religion according to Bruce?


  He argues that the scientific method rather than specific discoveries that provide the greatest challenge to religion as a belief system E.G existence of God cannot be proven. Religious beliefs relies on Faith not scientific evidence. This challenge to religion has increased as society moved more modern and developed a growing need , for concern with evidence based on cause an effect or natural phenomena
• The match of modernity - Referring to the period of society from the enlightenment What are the three different stages? First stage 


  Theoretical stage -

  • Pre-18th century
  • Religion and superstitious beliefs are dominant people believe as they have faith. They follow sacred text and leaders beliefs are not open to debate
• The match of modernity - Referring to the period of society from the enlightenment What are the three different stages? Second stage


  Metaphysical stage-

  • 18th century

  the supernatural elements of the previous stage are diminished and phenomena are explained as a rising from the action of more natural forces such as nature itself
• The match of modernity - Referring to the period of society from the enlightenment What are the three different stages? third stage


  Positive stage -

  • 19 century onwards

  Science is the dominant belief system people believe in things that can be tested and proven using objective knowledge. Weber as disenchantment whereby the magical and mystical elements of life are displaced by science
• Evidence for the displacement of religion, Bruce?

  suggest that in modern Arity religious explanations are generally being displaced by scientific explanations. G science proved that the Earth moved around the Sun not vice versa as religion once taught and the theory of evolution has displaced the Biblical explanation of creation. When phenomena occurs that Hard to explain, we are more likely to search for scientific explanations than religious
• Evidence against the displacement of religion ?

  whilst such evidence would indicate the growth of science has led to a declining religious beliefs this is not necessarily happened millions of people continue to identify themselves with a great religion of the world. Many individuals also hold beliefs in some abstract unseen mysterious extra human forces with the capacity to intervene in life for the individual, including those who do not define themselves as Religious.
• Merton - science needs an ethos (set of norms) what are they?


  communism - knowledge is not private property

  Universalism -Everyone can accept it as the truth

  disinterestedness - not fraudulent, or claims can be tested by others does not have bias and should be done for the sake of science rather than self interest

  Organised scepticism - Open to critique and questioning not blindly following
• Case study of witchcraft among the Azande- Pritchard?

  study of witchcraft in central Africa is an example of CBS highly superstitious don’t believe in coincidence. inject a chicken with poison - see if someone is doing witchcraft against another if chicken dies then yes, they can openly accuse the Suspicious person. Even if benge Was injected into the chicken without asking if anything and it still dies They would just say it’s a faulty benge This test reinforces their belief system they are trapped in their own Believe as they accept their systems basic assumptions and can’t changed it
• what dose Polanyi say about self sustaining beliefs ?

  they present three ways through which closed belief systems protect themselves against contradictory evidence
• what are the 3 ways that close beliefs systems protect themselves according the Polanyi ?


  Circularity- each idea depends on another idea within the system which depends on another idea within the system, etc

  subsidiary exploration- specific reasons to dismiss contradictory evidence E.G rituals didn’t work because they weren’t used correctly

  denial of legitimacy of rivals- reason given to ignore claims of those presenting contradictory evidence
• how dose Polanyi explain how these strategies help closed belief systems remain believable?


  he argues that these strategies deal with challenges and protect themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence applies to all belief systems including science. All belief systems dislike and reject fundamental changes to their knowledge claims.
• what dose Polanyi say about Poppers ideas of science as an open belief system?


  Says that it is too optimistic science is also a closed belief system e.g Velikovsky Provided a new series of earths origins. It was ridiculed by the scientific community suggest science isn’t as open to criticism as Popper suggested.
• Kuhn and science as a closed belief system?


  • science world based on set of shared paradigms determines which problems scientists study, counts as evidence & how evidence can be interpreted. Scientists are trained to follow the processes Following the paradigm, in their education socialised to believe and interest the paradigm. Scientist who carefully work following the paradigm are considered successful those who are ridiculed
  • This shows science is a closed belief system as they do not welcome critical challenges to their basic paradigms.
• evaluation of Kuhn?


  Popper functionalists like Merton (and most scientists) reject Kuhn’s The parody itself is open to challenge and criticism, but it’s based on solid evidence and those challenging it tend to have weak evidence
• What do interpretivests think?

  • agree with Kuhn that science is a closed belief system not as open to criticism as Popper believed. all knowledge is socially constructed no single objective truth - different ways to interpret things created by different social groups using resources available to them. Scientist claim to use evidence to find true objective knowledge, but it’s just one interpretation

  Woolgar - a scientific fact is a social construction accepted within the scientific community the same as religious claims are accepted as truth in religious communities
• What are Marxist feminists and post-modernists view on science as believe system?

  feminist and Marxists - Scientific knowledge serves the interests of the dominant group in society. New scientific knowledge focuses on the types of knowledge that benefits capitalism and the capitalist class or male domination.

  Postmodernists- many different interpretations or narratives about the world around us (Lyotard) and science is just one of them
• what are Marxists view on the role of ideology ?


  All in class ideology are ideas that legitimate the status quo E.G quality will never work because it goes against human nature hard work will bring prosperity, Poverty victim blaming( Bowles and Gintis) ‘ Poor are dumb’ dividing society on the basis of race to make people easier to control
• what are Marxists view on the role of ideology ?


  • aims to prevent change via false class consciousness. The proletariat needs to gain consciousness and revolute
  • Althusser (structural Marxist) ideological state
  • Gramsci and hegemony ( neo Marxist) ideological hegemony of the capitalist class can be challenged because the proletariat has a jewel consciousness

  what is needed is a group of organic intellects (workers that have developed a class conscious via their anti-capitalist struggles) to counter the ruling classes, ideology developed by class consciousness
• Evaluation on the Marxist view of the role of ideology ?


  • Some Marxist reject importance of ideology - Abercrombie no dominant ideology and control over ideas is not needed to maintain capitalism as its Exploitation. The only thing that matters is economic inequalities of capitalism E.G not ideology but fear of unemployment and poverty that prevents revaluation
  • feminists- ignores gender inequality and importance of patriarchal ideology
  • functionalists- capitalist ideology establishes our value consensus positive in achieving social solidarity in order
• Evaluation on the Marxist view of the role of ideology ?

  • postmodernists- outdated view of ideology- no longer one set of ideas controlled by one group.
  • the majority still believe in the more factual news shown in the media e.g Cohen’s concept of moral panics and how the media plays a leading role in causing them which is still very apparent in presence society.
• Evaluation on the Marxist view of the role of ideology ?

  • Marxist itself is an ideology and a belief system the analysis of capitalism as exploitative the inevitablility of a revolution after which are fully equal communist society will emerge. This is very much a set of ideas to provide an understanding of the world.
• What is the feminist view of the role of ideology?

  structuralists and conflict Prospective. Dominant ideology is patriarchy. Then dominate society and patriarchal ideology, maintain the dominance of men that ideas that the segregated gender roles are natural

  Feminist argue patriarchal ideology is produced through religion where women often are defined as inferior E.G religious ideas and rituals related to female impurity linked to childbirth or menstruation
• what dose Pauline Marks say?(feminist)

  In science, for example, male dominance of the production of scientific knowledge led to 19th century scientific claims that giving goals access to education would lead to generations of unfeminine women less capable of carrying out childcare responsibilities
• Evaluation of the feminist view on the role of ideology ?

  Not all religious belief systems subordinate women. Hinduism has goddesses as creators of the universe

  matriarchal religions with female deities well white spread before Methodist patriarchal religions

  Functionalists segregated gender roles needed as a part of the value consensus
• what is the ideology of nationalism?

  Provides a basic structure for society and its ideas are common that we hardly ever question them
• The ideology of nationalism claims that?


  • Nations are communities which have a shared culture and history different from those of other nations
  • Each nation should be self-governing have a Nation state Nations provide a sense of identity and belonging
  • can see success of nationalism via how it has convinced us that nations have ancient histories
• what dose Anderson say about nations?


  Says that they are an imagined community socially constructed created by societies to make us believe we have much in common with members of our nation share culture and a history when fellow members of even this smallest nations will never know of their fellow members
• Nationalism as false consciousness - Marxism?

  • Nationalist ideology equal elements of capitalist ideology helping protect and justify capitalism. It helps produce the false class consciousness just like racism it divides the working class makes workers believe they have more in common with capitalists of their own country than with workers of other countries. (What allowed the ruling class of each country to persuade The working class to fight wars on their behalf)
• Nationalism as false consciousness - Marxism?


  Marks - Was an interactionalist Believed workers from different countries should work together to overthrow capitalism that communism would create full quality within nation states and that it would eliminate the need for nations altogether
• Nationalism as a civil religion - Functionalism?


  Nationalist ideology plays a positive function in society especially in late modern societies where the influence of religion is diminishing societies have many religions so religion can be a source of division not social solidarity. Nations can perform the unifying role/function religions used to play civil religion - Bellah

  Education may include collective rituals With national symbols like the flag or national anthem E.G America
• Nationalism and Modernity - Gellner?


  Gellner agrees with Anderson that nations are as social construct. Gellner argues, nations and nationalism are phenomena specific to modernity- ideology of nationalism emerged in modern societies within industrialisation. Communities that are a source of belonging and identity in pre-modern societies were smallest scale communities based on face-to-face relationships. Communities in industrialised modern society are more large scale and impersonal with more complex government structures.
• Nationalism and Modernity - Gellner?

  In modern society nationalism allows people to communicate via mass state education system that could impose a single standardised national culture and language on every member of society
• what dose Mannheim say about ideology and Utopia?


  Analyse is the problem all ideologies face they are one sided representing one group and its interests and so do not Benefit all society but lead to conflict two types of belief system