Demography

• Demography


  The study of statistics such as birth rates, deaths, income or incidence of disease, which illustrate the changing structure of human population
• 1801 - population 10.5 million, 1901 - population 37 million, 2020 - 67.88 million
• Until 1980s UK population growth was largely the product of natural change that is the result of there being more births than deaths. However since then most growth comes from migration
• Birth rate


  The number of live births per thousand of the population per year
• In 1900 England/Wale had a birth rate of 28.7 but by 2014 it had fallen to an estimated 12.2. In 2020 it has fallen to 11.4
• There has been a long term decline in numbers of births since 1900 but figure shows that there has been fluctuations in births with three baby booms in the 20th century. 1st - after the two world wars (1914-1918, 1939-1945) 2nd 1960s/1970s and 3rd 1990s
• Total fertility rate (TFR)


  The average number of children women will have during their fertile years
• Factors that determine the TFR are the proportion of women who are of childbearing age and how fertile they are e.g how many children they have
• In recent years the Uks TFR has risen but is still much lower than in the past - 1960s 2.95 children per women, 2001 1.63 children per women, 20014 1.83 children per women, 2019 1.65 children per women
• Reasons for the decline in birth rates

  • Changes in woman's positions
  • Decline in infant mortality rate
  • Children are now an economic liability
  • Children centeredness
• Changes in woman's positions

  • Legal equality with men could vote
  • Increased educational opportunities - girls now do better in school than boys
  • More women in paid employment, plus laws outlawing unequal pay and sex discrimination
  • Change in attitudes to family life and woman's roles
  • Easier access to divorce
  • Access to abortion and reliable contraception, giving women more control over their fertility
• Harper argues the education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth rates and fertility rates. It has changed the mind set of women resulting in them having fewer children
• In 2012 one in 5 women aged 45 were childless double the number 25 years earlier
• Harper also noted that once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than a generation the cultural norms of family size change. Smaller families become the norm and large one could be seen as deviant or less acceptable
• Voluntary childlessness


  Women's control over their own fertility has seen an increasing number of women rejecting childbearing altogether
• By 2018 it was estimated 1 in 4 women had not had children
• Factors for voluntary childlessness

  • Pull factor - they are attracted by the pull of being child free, especially the increased freedom and better relationships with partners that it affords. Married couples without children have more disposable income
  • Push factors - they may experience a push away from motherhood. Women who tended to see parenting as conflicting with their leisure or career interests were disinterested
• Infant mortality rate (IMR)

  Measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per years
• In 1900, the IMR for the UK was 154 (15% of babies died within the first year). These figures are higher than those of less developed countries today e.g. Afghanistan 2014 IMR 117
• Reasons for the fall in IMR in the first half of the 20th century

  • Improved housing and better sanitation
  • Better nutrition, including that of mothers
  • Better knowledge of hygiene, child health and welfare, often spread via women's magazines
  • A fall in the number of married women working may have improved their health and that of their babies
  • Improved services for mothers and children, such as parenting class and baby clinics
• As a result of all the above developments by 1950 the Uk's IMR had fallen to 30 and by 2012 it stood at 4 - barely one fortieth of its 1900 figure. In 2020 the uk IMR stood at 3.5
• However many sociologists claim that failing IMR led to a fall in birth rates, Brass and Kabir 1978 argue that the trend to smaller families began not in rural areas where the IMR first began to fall but in urban areas where the IMR remained higher for longer
• Reasons for the decline in the birth rate

  • Children are now an economic liability
  • Laws banning children labour, introducing compulsory schooling and raising the school leaving age means that children remain economically development on their parents for longer and longer
  • Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms mean that the cost of bringing up a child has risen
• Child-centredness


  The increasing child-centredness both of the family and of society as a whole means that childhood is socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual's life
• In terms of family size, this has encouraged a shift from 'quantity' to 'quality' parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few
• Mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK. Babies born to mothers from outside the UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011
• Dependency ratio


  The proportion of the population who are of working age compared with the proportion who are not working and therefore dependent others (children and the retired)
• Fewer babies being born will mean fewer young adults and a smaller working population thus increasing the dependency ratio
• Fewer babies being born has led to smaller family sizes. This means women can be freer to go out and work+ dual earner couple
• High dual earner couples can afford to have a large family and outsource childcare
• Fewer babies being born has impacted public services and policies in several ways. For instance fewer schools, maternity and child health services may be needed. Cost of maternity and paternity leave and housing is impacted. Lastly a rising ageing population
• Death rate


  The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
• In 1900 the death rate stood at 19 whereas by 2012 it had more than halved to 8.9
• Reasons for the decline in death rates in the 20th century

  • Improved nutrition
  • Medical improvements
  • Smoking and diet
  • Public health measures
  • Other social changes
• Over three quarters of the decline rate is from about 1950s to 1970s was due to a fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases
• By 1950s so called diseases of affluence (wealth) such as heart diseases and cancers had replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death
• Males born in England in 1900 Could expect on average to live until they were 50 (57 for female). Males born in England in 2013 can expect to live for 90.7 years (94 years for females)
• Over the past two centuries life expectancy has increased by about two years per decade
• Harper predicts That we will soon achieve 'radical longevity' With many more centuries people aged over 100. Currently there are about 10,000 in the UK;By 2100 There Are predicted to be 1, million
• Differences in life expectancy

  • Women live longer than men, but Because of changes In employment and lifestyle this gap has narrowed
  • Those living in the north and Scotland have a lower life expectancy than those in the south
  • WC mean in manual jobs are nearly three times as likely to die before 65 compared to MC professional men
  • Those living in the poorest areas of England die on average Seven years earlier than those in the richest areas